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HARVARD UNIVERSITY
Library of the
Museum of
Comparative Zoology
^0^
B'
'^^^'^^^'^^coirF-c'Fj^
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
Indiana Academy of Science,
1 89 1.
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PAPERS. 188^-1891.
BKOOKVILLE, IND.
MUS. COMP. ZOOL^ LIBRARY
M 5 tsi^a
RD
atroi^s.
D. II. Baldwin & Co Indianapolis.
BowEN & Merrill Co. Indianapolia.
Noble C. Butler Indianapolis.
Joseph Eastman ••-.... Indianapolis.
E. S. Elder .- • • • Indianapolia.
C. W. Fairbanks Indianapolis.
Chas. B. Fletcher Indianapolis.
S. S. Gorby Indianapolis.
Griffith Bros Indianapolis.
Franklin W. Hayes Indianapolis.
T. H. Hibben Indianapolia.
C. E. Hollenbeck Indianapolia.
Alex. .Tamf^on Indianapolis.
Sylvester Johnson Irvington.
J. I. Kingsbury Irvington.
Jas. T. Layman Irvington.
Jas. W. Marsee Indianapolis.
Ferd. L. Mayer Indianapolis.
Model Clothing Store Indianapolis.
S. E. Mor-ss Indianapolis.
John H. Oliver Indianapolis.
Progress Clothing Co Indianapolia.
Louis Riebold Indianapolia.
W. B. Roberts Indianapolis.
Geo. ay. Sloan Indianapolis.
PROCEEDINGS
Indiana Academv of Science,
1 89 1.
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PAPERS. 188^-1891.
O. r. HAY. I
C. A. WALDO, Hditor;
J. M. cor I.TEH. I
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE.
Officers of the Academy . 1
Committees of the Academy 2
Past Officers of the Academy 3
Past Committees of the Academy 3
Members, honorary, uon-resident and active 5
Field meetings 9
Author list and bibliography of papers presented to the Academy 14
Abbreviations 32
Papers of the meeting of 18'J1 in full, by abstract, or by title; in the order of the programme 33
OFFICERS, 1891-92,
J. L. CAMPBELL.
YlCE-PltKSIDENTS.
J. C. ARTHUR, W. A. NO YES.
Secretary. AMOS W. BUTLER.
Treasurer. C. A. WALDO.
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE,
•J. L. Campbell, J. C. Aktiiuu, W. A. Noyes,
Amos W. Butler, C. A. Waldo, Jopin M. Ct)ULTEK,
J. P. D. Joiix, T. C. Mendenhall, O. P. Hay.
CURATORS.
Botany Johx M. Coulter.
Ichthyology Carl H. Eigenmann.
Geology S. S. Gorby.
Ornithology .' Amos W. Butler.
Herpetology O. P. Hay.
Entomology F. M. Webster.
Mammology "" E. R. Quick.
(1)
COMMITTEES, 1891-92.
C< M )PKHATI( )N OF EDT'CATK »XAL S( )CIP:TIKS. H. T. Eddy, C. A. Wai.do, ('. H. IIigenmann.
riiOGRAMMK.
Stanley ('()iM/n:i!, Ai,k\andki; Smith.
MEMBERSHIT'.
J. T. ScovKij,, W. S. Bi.at<i[i,i;y, J". ^I. Webster.
NOMINATIONS. J. M. Cori.TER, H. A. HrsTON, A. .1. Bi(;m:y.
AUDITING. P. S. Bakki:, W. \y. NoKMAX.
PLAN FOR PUBLICATION. A. W. BiTi.EK, O. p. Hay, Stanley Coilteu.
STATE LIBRARY. C. A. Waldo, .1. M. Coulteu, W. A. Xoves.
INCORPORATK )X. < ). P. Jenkins, B. W. Eyer.mann, C. A. Waldo.
LEGISLATION FOR THE RESTRICTION OF WEEDS. J. C. Akthii:, .1. M. CoiLTEii, W. H. Evans.
KDITORS. ( ). P. Hay, C. a. Waldo, J. M. Coi ltek.
3 PAST OFFICERS.
PRESIDENTS.
1885. J. P. D. .Jdii.v, pro tt'm. 1887-88. J. P. D. .Toiiv.
1885-8(). David S. Jokdax. 1888-89. Toiin C. Biiannmck.
1SS()-S7. John M. CiiULTEK. 1889-90. T. C. Mkndkmiai.l
1890-91. O. P. Hav.
SECRETARY.
1885-91. Amos W. Bitmcu.
TREASURERS.
1S.S5-90. (). P. .Ii-.NKixs. 1891. C. A. Waldo.
LIBRARIAN.
1886. .1. N. TIi-KTv.
PAST COMMITTEES.
ORGANIZATION.
1S85. ( ). V. .Tknkins, .J. C. Brannei!, S. P. Stoddakd.
MEMBERSHIP.
188.V8(J. D. W. Dexms. E. R. (iricic, .Ierome McNeii.i.. 1886-87. J. P. D. .loii.v, .1. :M. Coietei:, O. P. Hav. 1887-88. 0. W. Hak.mtt, B. W. Evkk.manx, O. P. Hay.
PROGRAMME. 1885-86. <>. P. Je.vkix.s, P). R. Moore, J. C. Braxner. 1886-87. C. R. Barnes, B. W. Evermann. 1887-88. D. S. Jordan, C. A. Waldo. 1889-90. O. P. Jexkixs, A. P. Carman. 1890-91. C. Li:o Mees, C. H. Gii.i'.ert, J. T. Scovki.l.
NOMINATING.
18S()-S7. J. ('. Bkanner, Stanley Col'lter, P. S. Baker. 1887-88. D. W. Dexnis, J. T. SrovKi.L, J. S. Kincsley.
PAST COMMITTEES— Continued.
INCORPORATION. 1887-88. T. P.. REDDixfi, MAuracK Thompson, J. P. D. .loiix, A. W. Biti.er. 1890-91. o. P. JicNKiNs, B. W. EvEUMANN, C. A. Waldo.
PUBLICATION. 1887-91. A. W. BiTLER, B. W. Evekmaxx, Stanley Coiltek.
LEGISLATION FOR THE PROTECTION OF NATIVE BIRDS. 1887-91. A. W. Butler, D. S. .Iordax, B. W. Evermaxn.
ON DIVIDINO THE ACADEMY INTO SPXTIONS. 1887-88. .T. P. D. John, J. C. Arthur, W. A. Noyes, O. P. .Texkins, D. W. Dexnis.
LIBRARY.
1887-88. T. B. Ri:i.i)in<;, W. DeM. Hooper, J. S. Kix<isi,kv.
AUDITING.
1887-88. P. S. Baker," C. A. Waluo. 1889-91. P. S. Baker, C. H. Gh.hert.
STATE LIBRARY. 1889-91. C. A. Waldo, J. M. Coulter, O. P. Jexkixs.
CO-OPERATION OF EDUCATIONAL SOCIETIES, 1890-91. D. S. Jordan, 0. P. Jenkins, R. G. Gillum.
LEGISLATION FOR THE RESTRICTION AND DESTRI^CTION OF
WEEDS.
1890-91. J. C. Arthur, J. M. Coulter, W. H. Evans.
T. C. Mendenhall, J. C. Arthur, J. S. Kingsle^v, Daniel Kirkwood, P. S. Baker, II. W. Wiley and J. M. Coulter were appointed a comnaittee to in- vite the American Association for the Advancement of Science to meet in Indianapolis in 1889 or 1890,
MEMBERS.
HONORARY MEMBER. Daniel Kirkwoo'l Eiverside, Cal.
NON-RESIDENT MEMBERS.
John C. Branner Palo Alto, Cal.
D. H. Campbell Palo Alto, Cal.
B. W. Evermann . Washington, D. C.
Charles H. Gilbert Palo Alto, Cal
C.AV. Green Palo Alto, Cal.
C. "\V. Hargitt Syracuse, N. Y.
Edward Hughes Palo Alto, Cal.
O. P. Jenkins Palo Alto, Cal.
David S. Jordan Palo Alto, Cal.
J. S. Kingsley Tufts College, Mass.
Robert B. Warder Washington, D. C.
ACTIVE MEMBERS.
J. Alex. Adair Hanover, Ind.
.r. C. Arthur Lafayette, Ind.
Harry F. Bain Moore's Hill, Ind.
Philip 8. Baker Greencastle, Ind.
Timothy H. Ball Crown Point, In.l.
Charles S. Beachler Atlanta, <;a.
Guido Bell Indianapolis, Ind.
(leorge W. Benton Indianapolis, Ind.
Alexander Black Greencastle, Ind.
Willis S. Blatchley Terre Haute, Ind.
Andrew J. Bigney Baltimore, Md.
Henry L. Bolley Fargo, X. D.
M. A. Brannon F. Wayne, Ind.
W. Y. Brown Greencastle, Ind.
.1. B. Kuiris Cloverdale, Ind.
Amos W. lUitler Brookville, Ind.
Noble C. Butler Indianapolis, Ind.
J. L. Campbell Crawfovdsville, Ind.
AVilliam B. Clarke • Indianapolis, Ind.
Fred. Clearwaters Greencastle, Ind.
John M. Coulter Bloomington, Ind.
Stanley Coulter . Lafayette, Ind.
U. O. Cox ^Nlankato, Minn.
M. E. Crowell Indianapolis, Ind.
Will Cumback Greensburg, Ind.
George L. Curtiss Greencastle, Ind.
B. M. Davis Irvington, Ind.
D. W. Dennis Richmond, Ind.
Chas. I\. Dryer Ft. AVayne, Ind.
II. T. Eddy Terre Haute, Ind.
Carl II. Eigenmann Bloomington, Ind.
E. S. Elder Indianapolis, Ind.
Samuel (i. Evans Evansville, Ind.
E. M. Fisher ' Unneyville, Ind.
AVilbur A. Fisk Richmond, Ind.
J. .1. Flather Lafayette, Ind.
Robert G. Gillum Terre Haute, Ind.
V. F. Glick Xewbern, Ind.
Katherine E. Golden . Lafayette, Ind.
Michael Golden Lafayette, Ind.
C.F.Goodwin Brookville, Ind.
S. S. (iorby Indianapolis, Ind.
^y. F. AI. Goss Lafayette, Ind.
A'ernon Gould Rochester, Ind.
Thomas (iray Terre Haute, Ind.
G. K. (ireene New Albany, Ind.
Edwin Stanton Hallett Corydon, Ind.
A. S. Hathaway Terre Haute, Ind.
O. P. Hay Chicago, 111.
A\"m. Perry Hay Irvington, Ind.
Franklin AV. Hayes Indianapolis, Ind.
Robert Hessler Indianapolis Ind.
AV. A. Hester Evansville, Ind.
T. II. Hibben Indianapolis, Tiid.
W. De M. Hooper Indianapolis, Ind.
<Teo. C. Hubbard Moore's Hill, Ind.
H. A. Huston Lafayette, Ind.
Thomas M. Iden . Irvington, Ind.
Alex. Jameson Indianapolis, Tnd.
A. E. Jessup Carmel, Ind.
J. P. D. John (ireeuL-astle, Ind.
Sylvester Johnson Irvington, Ind.
W.B.Johnson Franklin, Ind.
J. G. Kiniisbury Irvington, Ind.
AV. II. Kirchner Terre Haute, Ind.
Daniel Layman Indianapolis, Ind.
W. S. Lemen . . ■ lndiana])oli8, Ind.
Robert E. Lyons Bloomin.>;ton, Ind.
Herbert W. McBride . . Elkhart, Ind.
Kobert Wesley McBride Waterloo, Ind.
I). T. McDougal Lafayette, Ind.
F. M. McFarland Palo Alto, Cal.
J. "\V. ^Nlarsee Indianapolis, Ind.
A'ernon F. Marsters Bloomington, Ind.
C. Leo Mees Terre Haute, Ind.
T. C. Mendenhall Washington, I). C.
Joseph ]\Ioore Richmond, Ind.
Warren K. Aloorehead Xenia, Ohio.
David M. ]\Iottier Bloomington, Ind.
J. P. Naylor ( Ireencastle, Ind.
Charles E. Newlin Kokomo, Ind.
AV. W. Gorman ( freencastle, Ind.
"W. A. Noyes Terre Haute, Ind.
J. H. Oliver Indianapolis, Ind.
D. A. Owen Franklin, Ind. .
Wallace C. Palmer Colundjia City, Ind.
Alfred E. Phillips Lafayette, Ind.
E. R. Quick Brookville, Ind.
Ryland Ratlifl' Fairniount, Ind.
Thomas B. Redding New Castle, Ind.
I). C. lUdgley North Manchester, Ind
Herman B. Ritter Greencastle, Ind.
( ieorge L. Roberts (ireensburg, Ind.
W. B. Roberts Indianapolis, Ind.
John F. Schnaible Lafayette, Ind.
J. T. Scovell • Terre Haute, Ind.
Henry E. Seaton Cambridge, Mass.
W. P. Shannon (ireensburg, Ind.
(J. W. .Sloan Indianapolis, Ind.
W. J. Spillman • • Monmouth, Or.
Sidney T. Sterling Camden, Ind.
M. C. Stevens Lafayette, Ind.
A\'inthrop E. Stone Lafayette, Ind.
A. E. Swann Indianapolis, Ind.
Frank B. Taylor Ft. Wayne, Ind.
F. C. Test Washington, D. C.
:\[ason B. Thomas Crawfordsville, Ind.
AVm. M. Thrasher Irvington, Ind.
A. L. Treadwell Oxford, Ohio.
Joseph H. Tudor Baltimore, Md.
A. B. I'lrey Bloomington, Ind.
L. M. Underwood (greencastle, Ind.
T. C. Van Nuys Bloomington, Ind.
C. A. Waldo (Ireencastle, Ind.
L. I). Waterman Indianapolis, Ind.
F. M. Webster Wooster, Ohio.
M. L. Wells '■ Indianapolis, Ind.
James A. Wickersham Terre Haute, Ind.
J. R. Wiest Richmond, Ind.
H. W. Wiley Washington, J). C.
AVilliam S. Windle College Springs, Iowa.
William S. Wood Seymour, Ind.
A. Harvey Young Hanover, Ind.
Honorary member 1
Non-resident members .... 11
Active members 121
Total ' 133
FIELD :MEETINGS.
It was fitting that the first "Field Meeting" of the Indiana Academy of Science should be held at Brookville. There the idea of such an organ- ization originated. There the steps were taken, tlirough the Brookville Society of Natural History, by which the scientific investigators of the state were brought together at Indianapolis, December 29th, 1885, to adopt articles of association and eflfect an organization.
This first Field Meeting began Thursday evening, May 20th, 1886. The Academy was welcomed by Mr. D. W. McKee, President of the Brookville Society of Xatural History. President D. S. Jordan responded to his greet- ings. Dr. John €. Branner delivered an address on "The relations now existing between geologists and the people." The next day was devoted to visiting the localities of interest to 1 he persons attending. Luncheon was served at "Templeton's ford," on the east fork of White Water river, In the deep, clear water of the pool above the ford the baptism took place and the first "Field Meeting" was declared by the president to be a success.' Eecollections of that day — the first of united scientific work in Indiana, a meeting more successful by far than had been dreamed of, and yet which bespoke the fuller fruition to which the child of our minds should come in later years — can never be eftaced.
At night a public meeting was held in the Town Hall. Dr. Jordan delivered an address on "Charles Darwin." He also told " How to uo fishing." Dr. Branner gave an account of methods of coral fishing. Dr. P. S. Baker spoke of recent j>rogress in Toxicology. The number of per- sons attending that meeting, and strange so say, several others, was thirty- three.
The second " Field Meeting" of the Academy began its session at Wave- land, Ind., May I'Jth, 1887. The meeting that evening was informal — thoroughly so. The recollections of it will remain with those who partic- ipated, and it would hardly be j ust to attempt to give an account of the proceedings for the benefit of others.
The following morning the members were driven to "Shades of Death," a delightful spot adjacent to Sugar creek. There the day was spent and luncheon served. FiVery one had heard of this beautiful spot, shaded, well watered, with its canons, the clift's of which were topped with pine and hemlock, and the walls draped with ferns and bedecked with mosses ;
10
its "blizzard's roost;" its lack of snakes, its peaceful dells and shady glens —of all of which " the half has not been told,"
At night a pul)lic meeting was held at the M. E. church in Waveland, when T)r. T. C. Mendenhall delivered an address upon " Weather Pre- dictions." An informal discussion of the natural features of the region visited was held. C. E. Barnes, J. M. Coulter. W. S. Blatchley and Stanley Coulter spoke of its botanical interest, 0. P. .Jenkins of the fishes, B. W. Evermann of the birds, A. W. Butler of the reptiles and amphibians, T. C. Mendenhall of the southern limit of the white pine, P. S. Baker and W. W. Byers of the geology.
The following day the members were taken to " Pine Hills," in the valley of Indian creek, about a mile above the locality of the preceding day's explorations. The features of the country were somewhat difierent from those noticed the day before. A pleasant day was spent and lunch- eon was served at the club house. At this meeting also there were thirty- three persons.
The third " Field Meeting" was begun at Paoli, Orange county, May 2, 1888. The meeting was held in the public hall and was presided over by Yice President O. P. Hay. Prof. James E. Humphrey delivered an address entitled "Asa Uray." Prof. J. 31. Coulter gave a lecture on "The Yellowstone Park." The day following the persons present, thirty-three in number, drove to Wyandotte cave, in Crawford county, going, in the way they traveled, about forty miles. The evening and the early part of the night was spent exploring the cave. The next day the party returned to Paoli, stopping at Marengo .cave. The journey was a hard one, but it had its pleasures and they were noteworthy. All will remember that meeting, some, in some respects, unpleasantly, others as a season of unusual brightness in their lives. The annals of that meeting are classic to Indiana's scientists. How xmfortunate the chronicler cannot always write the Avhole truth!
At Greensburg, Ind., May 8th, 1889, the fourth "Field Meeting-" began. The session was held at 8:30 o'clock P. M. in the rink. Vice President J. L. Campbell presided. Dr. J. P. D. John delivered an illusti'ated lecture on "Our Celestial Visitors."
The day following was pleasantly spent visiting the Upper and Lower vSilurian exposures along Cobb's Fork of Sand creek. After luncheon, which was kindly provided by the hospitable people of Greensburg, the
11
membei-s went to the Harris City quarries, thence returned to (ireens- burg. In the evening another session was held in High School Hall. The following persons spoke of some of the observations made during the day :
J. L. Campbell, on Topography.
G. K. Greene and W. P. Shannon, on Geology.
J. M. Coulter, D. H. Campbell and J. C. Arthur, on Botany.
Hon. Will Cumback then gave his impressions of the meeting.
Edward Hughes gave an account of tlie Amphibians noted.
A. W. Butler spoke of the reptiles.
O. P. Jenkins spoke of the fishes of Cobb's Fork, and was followed by D. S. Jordan, who spoke of fishes also.
Rev. Mr. Torrence and J. P. D. .John made appropriate remarks, the latter moving the adoption of a vote of thanks to the citizens of (Jreens- burg for their hospitality, which was voted.
The roll showed twenty-seven persom^ present.
The next day the members divided, a part going to St. Paul and Waldron, others to Cliffy creek. The former spent the day among the fossils of these famous localities, while the latter fished or lounged beside the quiet stream drinking inspiration and absorbing wisdom at the same time. Over a small fire the champion of "vegetable beefsteak" might have been seen, giving instruction in primitive culinary methods as applied to his favorite food, while sitting about were several individuals who dis- cussed the governor's jokes, the true name of the stream explored yester- day, and the unaccommodating manner of the fishes who persisted in re- fusing to be caught, as with rapid How alike of words and saliva they watched the slowly growing mushroom pile. And thus we remember Greensburg.
The next " Field -Meeting" was appointed for Greencastle, where the meeting was called to order in Meharry Hall of DePauw University, at 8 o'clock P. M., May 8, 1890, by Prof. C. A. Waldo, acting president. Prof. C. Leo Mees delivered an address on " Inertia with reference to electric- ity." Dr. Daniel Kirkwood was elected the first honorary member of the Academy. President J. P. D. John, of DePauw University, extended to the members the courtesies of the university.
The following morning the members, according to previous arrange- ment, went to " Fern," an interesting spot, where the day was pleasantly spent. In the evening the party returned to Greencastle.
!•>
At 8 o'clock P. M. the Academy convened in Meharry Hall with ex- President John in the chair.
J. C. Arthur presented " Rome observations on parasitic plants taken at ' Fern.' "
C. R. Dryer gave an account of the "Surface < ieology of Putnam county." C. W. Hargitt spoke on " Some observations on Economic Fa\- tomology." Stanley Coulter gave some notes on the day's work. D. H. Campbell spoke of the ferns at " Fern." C. A. Waldo referred to the pro- . posed meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Sci- ence at Indianapolis in August next. A vote of appreciation of the kind- ness and courtesy shown the members of the Academy by the citizens of Greencastle and T'niversity authorities was passed. O. P. Jenkins, being called upon, spoke concerning the influence of associations such as the Indiana Academy of Science upon the individual worker. After discuss- ing plans for welcoming and entertaining the American Association the Academy adjourned.
According to appointment, the sixth " Field Meeting" was convened at the Arlington Hotel, Lake Maxinkuckee, May 14, 1^591, at 8 o'clock P. M. President Hay occupied the chair. Dr. P. S. Baker delivered an address upon "The Spirit of Scientific Work," for which the thanks of the Acad- emy were tendered him. The Executive Committee was instructed to prepare an abstract of the new law for the protection of birds, and to have a copy of the same mailed to each newspaper in the state. It was recommended that special attention be called to the fact that the English sparrow is not protected by law. J. T. Scovell spoke of the desirability of an effort being made to determine the height of Mt. Orizaba, Mexico, and of the advantages to be derived from such work being undertaken by running a line of levels from some determined point. to the summit and definitely fixing each thousand foot mark as a reference point for biologi- cal investigations. The Academy voted approval of the plan as presented and agreed to assist in any way in its power should such plan be under- taken.
The next day was spent in exploring the lake and its shores, and was very much enjoyed. Boating, fishing, turtle hunting and collecting in many lines represented the various ways in which the members were employed.
In the evening the Academy met again at the Arlington Hotel. A
13
committee consisting of J. M. Coulter, P. S. Baker, A. J. Woolman, A. P. Carman and A. W. Butler was appointed to consider the relation that should be sustained by teachers in the High Schools to the Academy of Science. The natural characters of the region about Lake Maxinkuckee were then discussed until the close of the session.
Richmond was the place chosen for the "Field Meeting" of 1892. The kind and urgent invitation of the representatives of Earlham College made each one feel an assured welcome to Richmond and to Earlham. On the morning of May 12th the members met at the Arlington Hotel, and under the guidance of Professors Dennis and Moore proceeded to Thistlethwaite's Falls, above the city. The morning was agreeably spent along the several outcrops of the fossiliferous limestone. Before noon the party reached the college grounds. After examining the collections, dinner was served in the dormitory. In the afternoon, by the kindness of the people of Richmond, the members were driven in carriages to Elk- horn Falls, five miles down the Whitewater river. Upon their return they were driven about the city and given an opportunity to see its beauties, comforts and advantages.
Thursday evening the Academy met in Lindley Hall, Earlham College. President J. L. Campbell occupied the chair. J. M. Coulter spoke briefly of the objects and plan of the Academy. Dr. Alfred Springer then de- livered an address upon "The Cell and Its Functions."
The thanks of the Academy were tendered Dr. Springer for his address.
The next morning the members visited the limestone outcrops below the city, going thence to the college where they again partook of dinner. Those who could remain spent the remainder of the day in the libraries, museums and laboratories All regretted when leaving time came. The meeting was too short in time but was full of pleasures for which all will hold the Richmond friends in grateful remembrance.
AUTHOR LIST AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
Papers Presented to the Academy
I''R()M 188-') TO 1801 IXCLU.SIVE.
.{I)tiri riiitiiiiix I xplniiial (lit /In pKijr fuUoiriiKj l/ii //.v/.
Adams, B. F. 'So. [See Van Nuys, T. C]
AXDERSOX, V. C.
'89. Town geology — what it is and what it might be. Arthuk, J. C.
'87. Life history of the plum leaf fungus.
'S"». Variation of plants from unripe seeds.
'ilO. A remarkable oscillating movement of protoplasm in a Mucor.
'!>0. Accelerating germination by previous immersion of the seed in hot water.
'91. Relation of available enzym in the seed to the growth of the jilant.
'91. The potato tuber as a means of transmitting energy. Bakek, p. .S.
'85. Indiana entomology.
'8(5. The new alkaloid, cocaine. [Not published.]
'89. Vapor densities of the volatile metalic " Halids." [Am. C. .T., XI, 134.]
'89. Oxidation by means of the fixed alkaline hydrates. [Not pub.]
'89. Action of chloroform on aluminum chloride. [Not published.]
'89. The " Perkins Synthesis." [Not published.]
'91. A copper ammonium oxj'^de. [Not published.] Barnes, C. K.
'86. Collecting mosses. [Not published.]
PiKACHLER, C. S.
'91. The relation of the Keokuk groups of Montgomery county with the typical locality. [Am. G., Aug. '92. A part of paper en- titled " Keokuk group of the Mississippi valley."]
'91. Comments on the description of species. [Not published.] BicxEV, A. J.
'91. Preliminary notes on the geology of Dearborn county, Ind. [Pr.
^^]
'91. Notes on Klaps fulvus. [Pr. \'.]
15
Blatciilev, W. S. '88. Lists of the plants of Monroe county, Ind. [Not published.] '89. Some rare batrachians. [Not published.] '89. The compositai' of Vigo county, Ind. [Not published.] '89, On some plants new to the state list. [Not published.] '90. The butterflies of Indiana. [17th Keport on the Geol. and Natural
History of Indiana.] '90. The batrachians and reptiles of Vigo county, Ind. [.1. of C. S. of
X. H., ApL, '91, p. 22.] . 'SO. Acridid;t> of Vigo county, Ind. [C. E. XXIII, '91, pp. 74, 98; al.<o
I. F., May 16, "91, under the title, " Some facts about grasshop- pers. ''.»0. On a bird new to the state fauna. [Not published.] 'HO. ( )n ( 'nicus discolor as an insect trap. [C. E. XXIV, "92, November.] 'ill. The Gryllid;.' of Indiana. [Pr. V.]
'91. Entomologizing in Mexico. [E. N. Ill, "92, pp. Ill, 131.] "91. Notes on Indiana Acridida-. Description of one new species. [C.
E. XXIV, -92, p. 28.] Bcji.i.EY, H. L. '88. A study of the sub-epidermal rusts of grasses and sedges. [B. G.
'89, p. 13! I.] '90. Notes on a new Puccinea'. [Am. :\I. M. .!., X, pp. 1(;8-180.] ''.»0. On the manufacture of jilant infusions for the culture of bacteria.
[Not published.]
Bol.I.MAX, C. H.
'86. Notes on the Acrididiie of Bloomington, Ind., with descriptions of
four new species. [Xot published.] 'Sf). New North American myriapods, chiefly from Bloomington, Ind.
[Not published.] '88. The sunfishes. [Not published.] '88. The myriapods of Indiana. [Not published.] Bkaxneu, J. C.
"86. An Indiana earthcjuake. [Not published.]
'86. The limit of the drift in Kentucky and Indiana. [Not published.]
'86. The deep well at Bloomington, Ind. [Not published.]
'87. A sketch of the geology of Arkansas. [Vol. I, (xeological Survey
of Arkansas, '89.] '87. The meanderings of the Arkansas river below Little Kock. [To
be published in '93. Miscellaneous papers by ( ieol. Surv. of
Arkansas.] '88. Observations upon the erosion of the hydrographic basin of the
Arkansas river above Little Rock. [Aa above.] '88. The fauna of Fernando de Noronha. [Am. N., Oct., '88, pp. 861-
171.] "Sit, The training of a geologist. (Presidential address.) [Am. G.
Mar., '90, pp. 147-160.]
1()
BllANNEK, J. C. AND J. H. MeANS.
'89. Preliminary location of a parting in the sub-carboniferous of Mon- roe county, Ind. [Not published.] Braxnon, M. a.
'89. Some Indiana mildews. [Not published.] Brown, R. T.
'85. Indiana geology. Brown, W. Y.
'87. [See O. P. Jenkins.]
'88. Effect on personal equation of single and double-line reticules. '88. [See O. P. Jenkins.]
'91. The sections of the anchor ring. [Annals of Mathematics, Vol. 6, '92, Xo. 6.] Bryan, Wm. '88. Investigations in physiological time. '88. Outline of work in physiological psychology. '89. Investigations on relation between the intensity of stimulus and
reaction time. '90. Researches on the tactual perception of distance. '90. Description of a new a»sthesiometer. '90. Researches on reaction time. Butler, A. W.
'85. The past and present of Indiana ornithology. [Not pub.] '86. Notes on the house building habit of the rauskrat. [Not pub.] '80. Notes on Indiana ornithology. [Not pub.] '87. Some rare Indian* birds. [O. & 0., Mar., '88.] . '87. Suggestions concerning a law for the protection of birds. [Printed
by the Academy for circulation.] '87. Notes on some Indiana reptiles and amphibians. [Not pub.] '88. On a mammal new to Indiana. [J. C. S. of N. H., Jan., '89, p. 214.] '88. Some notes on Indiana reptiles. [J. C. S. of N. H., Oct., '87, pp.
147-8.] '88 Observations on the destruction of birds by storms on Lake Mich- igan. [Not pub.] '89. Observations on the destruction of birds by storms. [Not pub.] '89. The proposed meeting of the American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science at Indianai^olis. [Not pub.] '89. Some notes on Indiana reptiles and batrachians. [J. C. S. of N. H.,
'92, pp. 169-179.] '89. The occurrence of the badger in Indiana. [Not pub.] v'90. Notes on Indiana reptiles. [J. C. S. of N. H., '92, pp. 169-179.] • '90. Observations on the habits of Synaptomys cooperii. [Not pub.] '90. [See B. AV. Everman. Not pub.]
'90. The range of the evening grosbeak in the winter of 1889-90. [Auk. IX, pp. 238-247.]
17
'90. Carolina parakeet in Indiana. [Auk. IX, pji. 49-o6.]
'91. On a deposit of vertebrate fossils in Colorado. [Not pub.]
'!)1. On Indiana shrews. [Pr. V.]
'91. Notes on Indiana birds. [Pr. V.]
I'.VMPUELL, D. H.
'88 On the value of the sexual organ as a standard of classification in
plants. ^
'88. Notes on the collecting and preserving of material for botanical
instruction. '89. Method of embedding and staining delicate vegetable tissues. '89. Germination of the macrospores of Isoetes.
'90. Compai'ative structure of the roots of Osniunda and Botrychium. '90. Notes on the prothallium of the Osmundacea'. Campbell, J. L.
'8(5. The geodetic survey in Indiana.
'87. The reversal of the electric current in the Holtz induction ma- chine. '88. The Collett glacial river. '89. Dangers of the electric current.
'91. The Kankakee and pure water for northwestern Indiana and Chi- cago. [Pr. v.] '91. Science and the Columbian Exposition, [Pr. V.] 1'ampbell, J. T.
'91. Topographical evidence of a great and sudden diminution of the
ancient water supply of the Wabash river. [Not pub.] '91. Source of supply to medial moraines probably from the bottom of the glacial channel. [Not pub.] Carmax, a. p.
'89. Magnetic permeability of nickel at low temperatures.
'90. Transformer tests.
'90. Note on the magnetic permeability of an impure nickel at low
temperature. '91. Heating of a dielectric in a condenser. Preliminary note. Clarke, W. B.
'89. Cremation. [N. A. .T. of H. 3d Series, Y, p. 154.] '90. Hypnotism. [Report Ind. Board of Health, '90, p. 144.] Conner, J. B.
'85. Statistical investigations in Indiana. Coulter, J. M. '85. Progress of botanical work in Indiana. '86. Origin of the Indiana flora. [Ind. Geol. Report, 1885-86, pp. 253-
282.] '87. Evolution in the vegetable kingdom, (Presidential Address.) [Am.
N., 1888, pp, 322-335.] '87. Stomata of Tillandsia usneoides. [Not pub.] 9
18
'S8. Geographical distribution of I'mbellifers. [Coulter and Rose Ke- vision X. Amer. TJmb., pp. .VS.]
'88. The future of systematic botany. [Not pub.]
'88. Peculiarities of the Indiana flora. [Not pub.]
'89. 8tone characters of Xysi^a. [!'>. (J. XV., 'M).]
'89. "Snake cactus." [Not pub.]
'89. The National Herbarium. [Not pub.]
'89. Mycorhiza and Epiphegus. [Not pub.]
'89. Distribution of Cornus. [P. A. A. A. S. Indianapolis meeting.]
'90. Biological surveys. [Not pub.]
'90. The Hora of Texas. [Cont. Nat. Herb., Vol. II.]
'91. Biological surveys. [Not pub.] CoiTLTER, Stanley.
'86. The chlorophyll bands of Spirogyra. [B. {}.. Nil, pp. 153-157.]
'87. Histology of the foliage leaf of Taxodiuni distichum. [B. G., NIA', pp. 76-Sl and XIY, pp. 101-107.]
'88. Amoeba - a query. [Not pub.]
'88. Strengthening cells and resin ducts in Coniferee.
'89. Determination of lower plant forms. [Not pub.]
'89. Porest trees of Indiana.
'90. Preliminary notes on genus Polygonum. [Not yet pub.]
'90. Aberrant fruit of .luglans nigra. [Not yet pub.]
'90. \'alue of minute anatomy in plant classification. [Not pub.]
'91. I'nused forest resources. [Trans. Ind. Hort. Soc, 1891, pp. 1.57- 192.]
'91. Distribution of cei'tain forest trees. [As above.]
'91. Cleistogamy in Polygonum. [B. G., XVII, pp. 91-92.] Davis, B. M.
'90. [See Jordan, D. S.] Davi.s, Sherman.
'91. Results of estimations of chlorini' in mineral waters by Volhardt's method. [Pr. W] Dennis, D. AY.
'86. The bearing of the Lebanon beds on evolution.
'87. The east-west diameter of the silurian island about Cincinnati.
'87. The transition of Orthisoccidentalis, Hall, into Orthis sinuata, Hall.
'91. Some observations on photomicrography. Dkesslar, F. B.
'88. The American mackerels. Drew, Frank M.
'89. Explorations of the V. S. Fish Commission in Missouri. Dryer, C. R.
'86. The surface geology of the Wabash-P^rie divide. [16th Ind. State Geo. Rep., p. 105, et seq.]
'87. The kames of Allen county, Indiana. [As above.]
U)
'89. The moraines of the Maumee glacier. [17th Ind. State Geo. Kep.] '89. Observations on the lakes of Indiana. [As above.] '89. The glacial geology of the Irondequoit glacier. [Am. (i., Apl., 1890.] EiGKNMAXx, Carl H. '88. Origin of the egg membrane in teleostean fishes. [Bulletin of the Museum of Comp. Zool. at Harvard College, XIX, p. 129-154.] '88. A Cyprinodon from Hot Springs in southern Xevada. [P. C. A. S.,
2d Series, I, p. 270.]
'91. The development of the viviparous fii^hes of California. [In press.]
'91. Recent additions to the ichthyological fauna of California. [A, M.
Y. A. S., 1892, and Proc. V. S. Xat. Mus., '92, pp. 123-178, and
Pr. v.]
'91. The continuity of the germ plasm in vertebrates. [J. of M., V,
pp. 481-492, an<l Pr. V.] '91. Biological stations. [San Francisco Chronicle, Xov. :>(), 1890.] '91. The eyes of blind fishes. [Zoe I, pp. 6o-72, and Proc. U. S. Xat.
M., 1892, pp. lo9-l()2, and Pr. V.] '91. On the presence of an operculum in the Aspredinid;c. [Am. X. XXVI, p. 71.] EiGEXAfAxx, Carl H., and Rosa S.
'88. Revision of the Xematognathi of South America. [Occasional
Papers of the Cal. Acad, of Sci., I, pp. 1-508.] '88. The Erythrinimc. [P. C. A. S., 2d Series, II, pp. 100-1 Ki.] '88. The edentulous Curimatinie. [A. X. Y. A. S., IV, pp. 1-32.] EiGENMAxx, Carl II., and R. L. GitEKx.
'91. The relation of nucleoplasm to cytoplasm in the segmenting egg. EicEXMAXx, Carl H., and Jexxie Hornuxg.
'86. Review of American Chaetodontidee. [A. X. Y. A. S., IV, pp. 1-18.] EiGEXMAXx, Carl H., and Elizabeth G. Hlghes. '86. Review of Diplodus and Lagodon. [Proc. U. S. Xational ^luseum, 1887, pp. 65-74.] EvAx.s, S. G.
'90. Notes on distribution and habits of Argynnis diana. [Xot pub.] EvAxs, Walter PI.
'87. Lichens of Indiana.
'88. The spines of Cactacea'.
'91. The cactus flora of the Southwest.
EVERMAXX, B. W.
'86. The work of the A. O. U. committee on bird migration. [Xot pub.]
'86. Notes on birds observed in Carroll county, Indiana. [Auk. V.]
'87. The fishes of Carroll county, Indiana. [Pr. V. S. X. M., '88.]
'87. The occurrence of the star-nosed mole in Indiana. [Am. N.]
'88. The occurrence in Indiana of the wood ibis. [Am. X.]
'88. Additions to the fish fauna of Vigo county, Indiana. [Xot pub.]
'88. [See .Jenkins, O. P.]
20
'S8. [See Jenkins, O. 1'.]
'89. Description of a new species of Rhinoptera from the Gulf of Cali- fornia. [Pr. T^ S. N. M., '91, pp. 121-105.]
'90. Some notes on Indiana birds. [Not pub.]
'90. [See Jenkins, O. P.]
'90. Audubon's old mill at Henderson, Ky. [Not pub.] EvERMANN, B. W., and Amo.s W. Bi tlkr.
'90. Notes on Indiana mammals. [Not i)ub.] EvERMANN," B. W., and O. P. Jenkixs.
•'90. Fishes of the Wabash basin. [Not pub.] Feslak, Bert. '
'88. [See Dresslar, F. B.]
I-'lSHER, E. M.
'89. Some structures in Epiphegus. [Not pub.]
'90. Parasitic fungi of Indiana. [Not pub.]
'91. Preliminary notes on the genus Hoffmanscggia. [Cont. Nat'l
Herb, I, pp. 143-150.] Gilbert, C. PI.
'88. Plan of work of the " Albatross" on the coast of Lower California.
[Not pub.] '89. Explorations of the V. S. Fish Commission steamer " Albatross "
in the Pacific ocean. [Not pub.] '\)0. The identification of ghost fishes. [Not pub.] '90. The deep water fishes of the Pacific. [Not pub.] Glick, V. F. '89. Some unusual forms of lime carbonate deposition. [Not pub.] '90. Notes on some Actinia. [Not pub.] Golden, Miss Katiierine E. '90. Weight of the seed in relation to production. [Ag. S., V, pp.
117-122.] '91. Diseases of the sugar beet root. [B. I. E. S., Ill, pp. 54-62, and
Pr. v.] Goss, W. F. M.
'90. A brief description of the new steam engineering laboratory at
Purdue University. [P^ngineering Journal, Dec, '91, p. 549;
also. Mechanics, Dec, '91, p. 291.] Gray, Thos.
'88. Sea bottom temperatures.
'88. A mantel piece seismoscope.
'89. Apparatus for the determination of power consumption in friction
and the cutting of metals. '89. Thomson's portable magnetostatic electrical measuring instru- ments of long range. '89. On the determination of the elasticity constants of materials by
the deflection method.
•21
'90. Exact and approximate formulte for calculating the force at any point in the plane of a circular circuit conveying an electric current.
'90. Some data as to the resistance to cutting of metals.
'90. An apparatus for determining strength of electric currents in ab- solute measure.
'90. Specimens of diagrams obtained in testing iron and steel.
'90. The relative magnetic resistance of air and iron.
'90. On the solution of the equation : du= ._,_" ^.,-
Gray, Tho8., and C. Leo Mees.
'89. Preliminary report on the changes. in density of wire in stretching. Green, E. L.
'89. The uses of infinity and zero in algebra.
'91. Some suggested changes in notation.
'91. [See Eigenmann, C. H.] Har(;itt, C. W.
'87. Some curious monstrosities in egg formation. [Am. X. XXII, p. 535.]
'87. Xotes on Scajihiopus holbrookii. [Xot pub.]
'88. Evidencesof shallow water deposition of silurian rocks. [Xot pub.]
'88. Occurrence of Agkistrodon contortrix in Dearborn county, Indiana. [Not pub.]
'88. Some strange cases of color variation in animals. [Am. X. XXIII, p. 449.]
'89. Notes upon the economic phases of entomology and ornithology. [Not pub.]
'89. Some habits of the cray fish. [Am. M. M. .7., XI, p., 179.]
'89. Some remarkable fioral variations. [B. G., XIV, p., 179.]
'90. Food habits of the blue jay. [Not pub.]
'90. Notes on Hydra fusca. [Xot pub.] Hathaway, A. S.
'91. A graphical solution for eiiuations of liigher degree, both for real and imaginary roots. [Vr. V.]
'91. On some theorems of integrations in quaternions. [Pr. V.]
'91. A note on the early history of potential functions. [Pr. V.] Hay, 0. p.
'85. The present condition of our knowledge of Indiana herpetology.
'86. A curious habit of the red-headed woodpecker. [Auk., Apl., '87.]
'86. The higher classification of the amphibia. [Xot pub.]
'86. Some reptiles and amphibians that appear to be rare in Indiana. [Not pub.]
'86. Some reptiles and amphibians that are to be looked for in Indiana.
'86. Notes on the winter habits of Amblystoma tigrinum and A. micro- stoma. [Am. N., 1890.]
'8(). The manner of deposit of the glacial drift, and the formation of
lakes. [Am. J. 8., 1,S87.] '87. Notes on some fossil bones found in Indiana. [Not pub.] '87. Observations on the Amphiuma. [Am. N., 1890.] '87. Some additions to the list of Indiana reptiles. [Not pub.] '8S. On the skull of the larva of Amphiuma means. [Am. N., 1890.] '88. On the hyobranchial apparatus of Amblystoma microstomum.
[Not pub.] '88. Further notes on the habits of some Amblystouias. [Am. N., 1890.] '89. The breeding habits and larval stages of Amblystoma microsto- mum. [Am. N., 1890,] '89. Some points in the anatomy of Amphiuma. [Am. N. 1890.], '89. Aquatic respiration of the Amblystomas. [Am. N., 1890.] '89. The life historj' of Chorophilus triseriatus. '89. On certain species of the genus Chorophilus. '91. The present state of the theory of organic evolution (President's
address.) [Present vol.] '91. On Leconte's terrapins, Emys concinna and E. floridana. '91. The eggs and young of certain snakes. [Pr. Y.] '91. Observations on the turtles of the genus 3fal6chlemys. [Pr. V.] '91. Our present knowledge concerning the green triton. [Pr. \.] '91. The proper systematic name of the prairie rattlesnake. Hay, O. p. and W. P. Hav.
'88. Contributions to the knowledge of the genus Branchipus. The
production of the larv;i' of P. vernalis. [Am. N., 1889. ] '88. Description cf a supposed new species of Branchipus found in In- diana. [Am. X., 1889.] Hav, W. p. '91. The blind cray fishes of Indiana. '91. Eemarks on the crustaceans of Indiana. [Pr. \.~\ Hessler, Robert.
'88. [See Van Nuys. T. C] [Not pub.]
'88. Railroad migrants among Indiana plants. [I. F., NXIII, p. 1.] HioiiT, R. F.
'8(). On the Thysanura.
HoLZMAN, C. L.
'91. Development of the sporangium and apical growth of the stem of Botrichium virginianum. [B. G., NVIt, p. 214.] Hooi'Ei:, AV. DkM.
'89. Incandescent gas lighting. HoRMXG, Miss .Texxie.
'86. [See Eigenmann, C. H.] HriiHAKD, G. C.
'8G. Additions to the flora of Indiana. [Not pub.]
'S7. List of butterflies of .Tefferson county, Ind, [Not pub.]
'S7. Additions to the flora of Indiana. [Not pub.]
'88. List of one hundred species of Jefterson county birds. [Not pub.] '88. List of the solitary wasps of Jefterson county. [Not pub.] '90. Geophila in .lefterson county, Ind. [Not pub.] '91. .Jefferson county cystidians. [Pr. V.] '9L Hudson river fossils of Jefferson county, Ind. [Pr. A^.] '91. The upper limit of the lower silurian at Madison, Ind. [Pr. V.] '91. A new microtome. [Pr. V.] HrsTox, H. A.
'90. Oxydation of phosphoric acid. [Xot pub.]
'90. Albuminoid nitrogen in Indiana feedini: material. [ 1>. I. E. S.,
XXXVIL] '91. The sugar Ijeet in Indiana. [B. I. E. S., XXXIV.] '91. Forms of nitrogen for wheat. [B. L E. S., XXXVI and XLL] '91. Laboratory and field work on the phosphate of alumina. [liuUe-
tin 28, Chem. Division. F. S. Dept. of Ag., p. 170.] '91. Recent methods for the determination of phosphoric acid. [Bul- letin 81, Chem. Div. F. S. Dept. of Ag.. pp. 107-179.] Jen-kins, 0. P.
'85. Account of the work done in invertebi'ate zoology in Indiana.
'86. The fishes of the Wabash and some of its tributaries. [Not pub.]
'87. Notes on some southern Indiana fishes. [Not pub.]
'89. The state of the crater of Kilauea in August, 1.S89. [Not pub.]
"89. Preliminary note on the fishes of Sandwich Islands. [Not pub.]
'89. Fishes of Putnam county. [Not pub.]
'89. Notes on some fishes from the west coast of Africa, collected by
Carl Stecklemann. [Not pub.] '90. Sailor spiders on Lake INIaxinkuckee. [Not pub.] '90. Chsetodontida' of the Sandwich Islands. [Not pub.] '90. [See Evermann, AV. B.]
'90. Notes on structure of mut^cle cells in salamanders. [Not pub.] Je.nkins, O. p. and W. A'. Biiowx.
'87. Location of Eel river falls. [Not pub.]
'S8. The determination of the least discernible interval between
sounds. [Not pub.] Jexkins, O. p. and B. AV. EvEK.^[.\XN.
'88. The fishes of the bay of Guaymas, including nineteen new species.
Pr. V. S. N. M., '88, pp. 137-158. '88. Some notes on the natural history of (juaymas, Mexico. [Not pub.] '90. Contribution to the distribution of the fishes of the west coast of
North America. [Pr. F. S. N. M., '91, pp. 121-l(i5.] Jenks, Jeremiah AV.
'89. The eft'ects of trusts. John, J. P. D.
'88. Religion and the law of continuity. (Presidential address.)
[Methodist Review, X(.v. 'S9, pp. 870-887.]
2i
JOEDAX, D. S.
'85. Sketch of ('. >S. Kafinesque. [Pop. Sci. Monthly.]
'85. Account of the work done for ichthyology in Indiana.
'8(5. The relation of latitude to the number of vertebra' in fishes. [Pr.
U. S. N. M., 1891, pp. 107 et seq.] '86, The dispersion of fresh-water fishes. (Presidential address.)
[Science Sketches, '88. A. C. McClurg & Co.] '87. Blind fishes and natural selection. [Not pub.] '87. The Isthmus of Panama as a barrier to marine fauna. [I'r. i'. S.
N. M., 1885, p. 394.] '87. The ori,o;ln of genera. [Not pub.] '88. The relation of systematic zoology to museum administration.
[Not pub.] '88. Explorations of the V. S. Fish Commission in \'ir«rinia and North
Carolina. [Bulletin U. S. Fish Com. for 1889.] '88. Analogy between river faun;o and island faunic [Not pub.] '88. The ancestry of the blind fishes. [Not pub.] '89. Fishes of the Yellowstone Park. [Bulletin V. S. Fish Comm. for
1890.] '89. The top of the Matterhorn. [Not pub.] '89. Explorations of the U. S. Fish Commission in Colorado and I'tah.
[Bulletin V. S. Fish Comm. for 1890.] '90. The death of salmon after spawning. [Letter to Forest and Stream,
1892.] 'iiO. The fishes of the upper Columbia and the Shoshone Falls. [Not
pub.] '90. Relation of the number of vertebra' in fishes to the temperature
of water. [Pr. V. S. N. M., 1891, pp. 107 et seq.] '90. The colors of letters. [P. S. M., July, 1891.] Jordan, D. S. and B. M. Davis.
'90. Eels of America and Europe. [Report U. S. Fish Comm., 1892.] Karstkn, Gustaf.
'90. The colors of sounds. Kellerman, W. a. '91. Notes on a Kansas species of l)uckeye. [Not pub.] '91. Photographing certain natural objects without a camera. [.I. C.
S. of N. H., 1892, pp. 53-54.] Kellicott, D. S. '91. The Aegeria of central Ohio. [C. E., NNIV, p. 39.]
KiNOSLEY, J. S.
'87. The origin of arthropods.
'88. The invertebrate homologues of the infundibulum and pineal eye. '88. Segmentation of the arthropod egg.
'88. The Myriapoda, a heterogeneous group. [Am. N., 1889.] Kirk WOOD, Da.mel.
'85. Astronomical studv in Indiana.
'SG. The zone of minor planets. [Author's monograph on the aster- oids.] KiRSCH, p. H. '88. The American star-gazers — T'rauoscopidae. [Proi-. of Acad, of Nat. Sci. of Phil'a., 1S89, pp. 258-265.] Lackey, B. A. '90. Freezing process of excavation.
LOTZ, DUMONT.
'90. [See Stone, W. E.] Lyons, Robeet E.
'88. [See Van Nuys. T. C]
'90. [See Van Nuys, T. C]
'90. An improved chemical test for blood in urine.
'V)0. An apparatus for determination of water in oils and fats.
'91. [See Van Nuys, T. C] McBkide, R. Wes.
'9L Some observations on Indiana birds. [Pr. V.] McDouGAL, D. T.
'89. The plants of Putnam county.
'90. Aberrant forms of Juglans nigra— structural changes.
'9L Plant zones of Arizona. [Pr. V.] McNeill, Jerome.
'86. A remarkable case of longevity in the longicorn beetle, Eburia quadrigeminata, Say.
'SO. The teaching of entomology in the high schools.
'86. Descriptions of four new species of myriapods from the United States.
'90. A list of the ( )rthoptera of Illinois, with descriptions of new species and observations on the songs and habits of little known species. MartixV, G. W.
'91. Organogeny of Aster and Solidago. [B. G., XVII, No. 11, and Am. N., XXVI, No. 31L] Martin, Miss Lillie J.
'86. Outline of a course in science study based on evolution.
'87. A chemical study of Juglans nigra.
'87. The value of organized work in plant chemistry. Means, J. H.
'86. [See Branner, J. C.] Meek, S. E.
'86. Elegatis pinnulatis at the east end of Long Island Sound. Mees, C. Leo.
'88. Notes of the comparative value of several photometric methods.
'88. Some curious phenomena in a four-plate Toeppler-IIoltz machine.
'88. Simple device for measuring the coefficient of expansion of solids.
'89. [See Gray, Thos.]
2(i
'89. The use of two mirrors for the determination of the coefficient of expansion in solids.
'89. Cause of periodicity in thermometers as discussed by I'rof. W. A. liodgers.
'90. Description of a powerful electro-magnet with preliminary deter- mination of its magnetic field.
'90. Continuation of experiments in the change of density of metala under stress. Mkndeniiall, T. C.
'86. Recent progress in seismology.
'88. Recent researches in atmospheric electricity. [Popular Address.]
'90. The work of the I'nited States Coast and < ieodetic Survey. [Presi- dent's Address.] ^Ikyxcke, O. M.
'87. The late drouth and its effect on vegetation.
'87. Companion plants.
'87. Xoles on the whitespored agarics of Franklin county, Ind. MiKELS, Mrs. Rosa Reijdixi;.
'91. Preliminary paper on the flora of Henry county, Ind. [Not yet pub.]
MOOKE, D. 1\.
'85. Our knowledge of Indiana conchology. 3IooRE, Joseph. '89. On the remains of a giant beaver found near AVinchester, Indiana.
[Not pub.] '90. A recent find of musk ox remains in Indiana. [Not pub.] '91. Variations in the dynamical conditions during the deposit of the rock beds at Richmond, Ind. [Not pub.] Mooke, J. E , and E. M. Linglev. '91. Hysteresis curves for mitis and other cast irons.
MOKCJAX, JOKX.
'90. Circulation of sap. ^looEEHEAi), Warren K.
'91. Recent archaeological discoveries in southern Ohio.
'91. Methods observed in archfeological research. MoTTiER, David ]\I.
'90. Notes on the apical growth of liverworts. [B. G., M&y, 1891.]
'90. Notes on the germination of spores of Notothylas.
'91. Notes on the development of the archegonium and fertilization in Tsuga canadensis and Pinua sylvestris. [B. G., ^lay, 1S92, and Pr. v.]
NAVI...R, J. P.
'85. The progress of physics in 1 ndiana. '8S. A new electrometer.
'!)0. A set of resistance coils and AVheatstone's bridge.
'91. An adjustment for the control magnet on a mirror galvanometer.
'91. A combined Wheatstone's bridge and potentiometer. Xef, J. r.
'87. On carboxylated derivatives of ben/.oquinone. [.lourn. Loud. Chem. Soc, 1888, p. 428.]
'87. On chloranil. [B. d. c. G., 1887, p. 2027.]
'88. The constitution of the anilic acids. [Am. C. J., 18S!t, p. 17.]
'88. On tautomeric compounds. [Am. C. J., 1S89, p. 1.] New UN, C. E.
'90. Some new crustacean fossils.
Ne\V80M, J. F.
'90. A review of the Niagara group in Bartholomew county, Ind. '90. Shelby county " Earthquake.''
NOYES, W. A.
'87. Beta-nitro-para-toluic acid. [Am. C. .1., N, p. 472.]
'88. On the atomic weight of oxygen. [Am. C. J., XI, p. 1-35.]
'89. Atomic weight of oxygen. [Am. C. J., XII, p. 441.]
'90. Detection and estimation of titanium. [.T. of A. C, V, p. 39.]
'91. Di-benzyl carbinamine. [Am. C. .1., XIV, p. 22."), and I'r. N.]
'91. The character of well-waters in a thickly populated area. [Pr. Y.]
NoYES, W. A., and Chas. Walker.
'80. On the oxidation of paraxylene-sulphamide by potassium ferri- cyanide. [Am. C. J., IX, p. 9.3.]
NoYE.s, W. A., and AY. B. Wiley.
'88. On para-nitro-ortho-sulphamine-benzoic acid. [Am. C. J., XI, p. 161.]
O^ijoii.x, H. L.
'86. Osphradium in Crepidula. [Am. :M. M., Apl., 18S7, p. (i.]
Owen, D. A.
'87. A geological section of .lohnson county, Ind.
'91. Strange development of stomata upon Carya alba caused by phyl- loxera. [Pr. v.] '91. Some observations upon Heloderma suspecta. [Pr. \'.]
OWEX, KiCITARL).
'8.3. Sketch of the work accomplished for natural and jihysical science in Indiana. Palmer, Chase.
'89. On sulphophenyl-propionic acid. Phillips, A. E.
'89. The portable water supply of the City of New York. Phinxey, a. J.
'86. Natural gas and petroleum.
•28
'86. Loantharia rugosa. Tkodlk, J. B.
'88. [See Waters, E. G.] PoTTKu, Theodore.
'91. The contest against infection. [Cincinnati J.ancet-CUinic, August 0, '92.] ill UK, E. E.
'85. The progress of the study of mammalogy in Indiana.
'86. Our blind mice. Ra(;.vx, W. H.
'85. Meteorology in Indiana. Redding, T. B.
'87. Man an evolution — biological proofs. [Souvenir of Western Writers' Asso., 1890, pp. 173-184, and Pulpit and Tew.]
'91. The prehistoric earthworks of Henry county, Ind. [New Castle Courier, Dec. 20, '89, and Pr. Y.] Rett(;er, Louis.
'89. [See Drew, Frank M.]
'89. Morphology of the siphonophores. [Not pub.] Ho,sE, .1. X.
'86. The mildews of Indiana. [B. G., XI, pp. 60-63.]
'87. Characters in Vmbellifer;e. [B. G., XII, pp. 237-243, and Coulter and Rose's Revision of Umbellifera\"pp. 9-lG.]
'90. Distribution of T'mbellifer;e in Xorth America. [Not yet pub.]
'90. Plants collected by Dr. Palmer in Arizona in 1890. [Cont. fr. IT. S. Xat'l Herb., I, pp. 117-127.]
ScjlNAlBLE, JOIIX r.
'89. Soap analysis. [J. of A. C, IV, p. l.")7.]
SCOVELL, J. T.
'85. Geographical studies in Indiana. [Xot pub.]
'86. The geology of ^'igo county, Ind. [Not pub.]
'S(). The Xiagara river. [Xot pub.]
'87. Erosion in Indiana. [Xot pub.]
'88. The old channel of Xiagara river. [Xot pub.]
'".lO. Sections of drift in Yigo county, Ind. [Xot pub.]
'91. Exploration of Mt. Orizaba. [Xot pub.] Seatox, Hexry E.
'88. The epidermal cells .of Tillandsia.
'89. Some stem characters in Composita*.
'90. Xotes on Gautemalan Composita-.
'<»] . The flora of Mt. ( )rizaba. [Pr. V.] Selhy, Aio. D.
'91. On the occurrence of certain western plants near ( olumbus, ( )hio. [Partially B. G., 1891, p. 155, and Pr. Y.]
SlIA.NXON, W. P.
'86. The physical geography of Decatur county, Indiana, during the Xiagara period. [Xot pub.]
•29
'87. A list of the fishes of Decatur county, Ind. [Published privately. Apply to the author.]
'87. List of butterflies of Decatur county, Ind. [Not pub.]
'90. The occurrence of Yeratrum woodii in Decatur county, Ind. Smith, Alex.
'91. Condensation of acetophenone with ketols by means of dilute po- ■ tassium cyanide. [Pr. V.]
'91. Condensation of acetone with benzoin, by means of dilute potassi- um cyanide. [Pr. Y.]
'91. Pyrone and pyridone derivatives from benzoyl-acetone. [Pr. Y.]
8PILL.MAN, W. J.
'89. A comparison of the life histories of difi'erent forms of plants. '89. The height of the atmosphere. '90. A refraction rainbow. '90. Geological section at Yincennes. '90. Preliminary list of Knox county plants. '90. Introduction of noxious weeds. Stone, W. E.
'89. The carbohydrates of the sweet potato. [Ag. S., l\', p. :>] and B.
d. c. G., XXIII, p. 1406.] '89. Specific reaction for the penta glucoses. [Not pub.] '90. Notes on xylose. [Not pub.] '90. On qualitative and quantitative reactions for furfurol. [Journal
of Analytical and Applied Chem. Y. No. 8, and B. d. c. G., XXIY,
p. 3019.] '91. The digestibility of the pentose carbo-hydrates. [Am. C. J.. XIY,
No. 1 and B. d. c. G., XXY, p. 563.] '91. The action of phenyl-hydrazin on fufurol. [Not pub. elsewhere.] Stone, W. E. and Dumont Lotz.
'90. On a pentaglucose obtained from corn cobs. [Am. C. J.. XIII, Xo.
5, and B. d. c. G., XXIY, 1657.] Sweeney, R. G.
'88. [See Waters, E. G.] Taylor,. F. B.
'88. An objection to the contraction hypothesis as accounting for
mountains. '88. The sun's light.
'90. The highest old shoreline on Mackinac Island. '90. The effect of the Great Lakes on the ice sheet. Test, Fked C.
'88. A new kind of phosphorescent organ in Porichthys. [Bulletin
Essex Institute, XXI, pp. 43-52.] Thomas, M. B.
'91. An apparatus for determining the iseriodicity of root pressure.
[B. G., 1892, p. 212, and Pr. V.]
30
'91. The scales of Lepidoptera. [Not pub.] Thompson, Matrick.
'85. Mineralogical investigation in Indiana.
'S7. The secondary functions of the hyoid cornua in Picus and Colaptes. [Chapter on "Hyoid Hints" in the author's " Sylvan Secrets," pp. 125-i:;<), John B. Alden, X. Y., 1887.]
Tix<ii.EY, E. M. '91. [See Moore, J. E.]
TlDOK, JOSKI'II H.
'90. Some features of the occurrence of Viola pedata var. bicolor. [Not pub.]
Ulrev, a. B.
'91. A review of the Kmbiotocidiv. [Pr V.]
UXDEKWOOD, L. M.
'91. The distribution of tropical ferns in peninsular Florida. Pr. V.]
'91. Some additions to the state flora from Putnam county.
'91. Connecting forms among the polyporoid fungi. [Zoe, III, pp. 91-95.] VAX NuYs, T. C.
'88. Estimation of water in oils. [Not pub.]
'91. Some suggestions to teachers of science or mathematics in high schools. [Pr. v.] Yax Nuys, T. C. and B. F. Adams.
'86. The estimation of carbonic acid in the air. [Am. C. J., IX.] A\\N Nuys, T. C. and Robert Hessler.
'88. Researches in invertin fermentation. [Not pub.] Van Nuys, T. C. and R. F. Lyons.
'88. Review of the methods of estimating starch in cereals. [Not pub.]
'90. A new method for quantitative determination of albumen in urine. [Am. C. J., XII.]
'91. Carbonic acid in the urine. [Am. C. J., XI\', and Pr. V.] Waldo, C. A.
'87. The problem of the earthquake center. [P. A. A. A. S., 1888.]
'88. A note on maxima and minima. [Not pub.]
'89. Probable future of petroleum in southwest Indiana. [Indianapolis Journal.]
'91. Some geometrical prupositions.
'91. Notes on numerical I'adices. Walker, Chas.
'80. [See Noyes, W. A.] AVarder, R. B.
'85. Chemical work in Indiana. . Waters, E. G. and J. B. Peddle.
'88. A new automatic repeater.
Water^^, E. G., and R. G. Sweexkv.
'88. A new switch for telegraph and telephone use. Webster, F. M.
'8<). Some biological studies of Lixus macer, Say, and L. concavus, LeG. [Entomologica Americana, V, pp. 11-16.]
'S7. An unusual appearance of Apatura celtis along the St. Francis river, in Arkansas. [Insect Life, I, p. 29.]
"87. Drouth, and its effect upon insect increase and decrease. [Not pub.]
'87. Distribution of some species of injurious insects, throughout Indi- diana, during the season of 1887. [Not pub.]
'87. The overflow of the Mississippi river and its effect upon the spe- cies of SimuHum (buffalo gnats) infesting the smaller inland streams of the adjacent country. [U. S. Dep. Agr. Bureau An. Industry. 4th and 5th reports '87-'88, pp. 156-05.]
'91. Gontributions to a knowledge of the grain Toxoptera (Toxoptera graminum.) [Insect Life, IV, pp. 245-8.]
'91. Buffalo gnats (Simulium) in Indiana and Illinois. [Tr. V.]
'91. Some insects of Tasmania. [Pr. Y.]
'91. Early published references to injurious insects. [Insect Life IV, pp. 262-5.]
WlI.EY, H. W.
'86. The scientific study of psychic phenomena. [Not pub.]
'86. Causes of variation of sucrose in sorghum. [B. G., XII, p. 54, and
Bulletin 18, Chem. Div. V, S. Dept. Agl. p. 11 L] '88. The value of the refractive index in determining the adulterations
of lard. [J. of A. C, II. Part 3 and Bulletin 13. Chm. Div. l'. S.
Dept. Agl. Part 4, p. 442.] '88. The present condition of the sorghum sugar industrj- in the United
States. [Proc. of 8th Ann. Meeting of Soc. for Promotion of Agl.
Science.] Wiley, W. B. '88. [See Xoyes, W. A.]
WiNDLE, W. S.
'87. The skull of Necturus lateralis. '88. Raphides in fruit of Monstera deliciosa. Woodford, A. B. '86. The nation — the subject matter of political science.
WOOLMAN, A. J.
'89. Notes on Indiana butterflies. [Not pub.]
'90. The fishes of the interior of Kentucky. [Bulletin U. S. Fish Com.]
8-2
ABBREVIATIONS IN THE PRECEDING AUTHORS'
INDEX.
A. X. Y. A. S. — Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. Ag. y. — Agricultural Science.
Am. C. J. — American Chemical Journal.
Am. G. — American Geologist.
Am. J. S. — American Journal of Science.
Am. M. M. — American Monthly Microscoi'iral Journal.
Am. N. — American Naturalist.
B. d. c. G.— Berichte der deutschen chem. (iesellschaft. B. G. — Botanical ( iazette.
B. I. E. S.— Bulletin Indiana Agl. Experiment Station.
C. E. — Canadian Entomologist. I. F. — Indiana Farmer.
J. C. S. of N. H.— Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History. J. of A. C— Journal of Analytical Chemistry. J. of M. — Journal of Morphology.
N. A. J. of H. — North Amer. Journal of Homeopathy. O. & O. — Ornithologist and Oologist.
P. A. A. A. S. — Proceedings of the American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science. P. C. A. S. — Proceedings California Academy of Science. P. S. M.— Popular Science Monthly. Pr. U. S. N. M.— Proceedings U. S. National Museum. Pr^ v.— Current volume of Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science.
addrEkSs bv the president.
0. p. Hay, Eutler T'niversity, Irvington, Ind.
A COXSIDERATION 01" SOME THEORIES OF EVOLUTION.
We find in the physical history of the earth an illustration of evolution in the modern sense of the word, a progress in accordance with fixed laws from the simple to the complex, from the undifferentiated to the difi"er- entiated.
That philosophical minds should suspect that the world of organic be- ings, animals and plants, had been the subject of a similar course of evo- lution is not strange ; and we find that such a suggestion has been often and long ago made. In modern times Lamarck has led the way; but neither were his theories adequate, nor were the men of his time ready to abandon their ancient conceptions. But when, in 1859, Darwin and Wallace pviblished the results of their independently pursued studies and proposed a theory, definite and supported by a multitude of facts, their works attracted immediate and sustained attention. It is doubtful if any doctrine so subversive of universally accepted ideas has ever, in so short a time, received the recognition of so many of the educated and thought- ful minds of the world.
The doctrine of organic evolution, which attempts to explain the vari- ous differences and resemblances which exist among organic beings, de- pends on two laws, lieredity and variability. The one law ordains that the living thing shall possess the essential characters of its parent or parents; the other law that it shall depart from those characters to a greater or less extent. Neither law can be questioned by anybody ; only the extent to which the one law prevails over the other is in dispute. The evolu- tionists maintain that the law of variability may prevail over heredity to such an extent that after a greater or less number of generations, the deviations from the original form and structure may be so great that a new species may be produced.
In the attempt to explain how it is that new species originate, Darwin and Wallace hit upon the idea of " natural selection." In nature ho two
3
individuals of a species are just alike. Each varies in some slight respect from the ty]>e. Of these variations, some may be indilferent, some use- ful, some harmful. According to these authors, these variations may affect all parts of the body, the form, the size and strength of single organs, color, or mental ({ualities. Again, all species tend to increase beyond the limits of space and food supply. From this latter cause there arises between the members of any species a struggle for existence. More- over, all species are warred ui)on by many others, by which their food is appropriated and through which they themselves may be appropriated as food. In such a dire struggle it is,. on the average, the best endowed individuals that will succeed in maintaining themselves and in produc- ing offspring to inherit their useful characters ; that is, the most vigorous individuals, those which have developed in the highest degree weapons of offense and defense, or protective colors, or the greatest cunning. The weakest, the most exposed, the most stupid, will perish and leave few or no young. From all the young produced by every species there is thus a constant and unsparing selection being made in favor of those individ- uals which can best endure the stress of the conditions. Hence the meaning of Darwin's phrase " natural selection,'' and of that used by Spencer, " survival of the fittest." Through the selection, for many gen- erations, of the individuals possessing certain beneficial characters, these at length become fixed in the organization and strengthened until the organism is no longer what it was, but may have departed widely there- from. Since success in the struggle is constantly demanding greater strength of limb and body, more efficient organs for each function, more weapons for assailing and repelling, more perfectly protective coloration, the general tendency of evolation has been upward ; but the vigor with which the battle is waged may result in driving some species into such situations that degeneration may occur. Such are many burrowing ani- mals and most parasites.
This process of natural selection is therefore quite similar to the artifi- cial selection which is practiced by breeders in their effort to develop new varieties of animals and plants. Those individuals are selected which possess in the highest degree the desired quality ; they are crossed with others having, if possible, the same quality, and the offspring of the pair are treated in the same manner, until the character sought is fully devel- oped.
The rigorousness of the selective process that is going on in nature can
35
hardly be appreciated by one who has not given attention to the matter. To a casual observer, it may appear as if the most worthless individuals got a living, while the better perished. The well-favored do often suc- cumb, and in ordinary times the weak may escape ; but when periods of great food-scan^ity, or of intense heat or cold, or of drought come, then the weak perish miserably. The eggs produced by some fishes reach into the millions. Could each one develop into an adult fish, which should in its turn give origin to an equal number of off'spring, a very few years would sufiice to fill all the seas with that fish. As it is, only perhaps one egg in a million becomes an adult fish. The least protected eggs are swallowed by enemies, the weakest young fishes die from disease and ex- posure, while only the most vigorous escape.
Our wild rabbits pro'luce several young at a litter and a number of lit- ters each year; yet the number of rabbits does not, on an average, in- crease. As many rabbits must therefore die each year as are born, and they seldom die of old age. Dogs and men, extreme cold and hunger, carry them ott' by thousands. Is there not here abundant opportunity for the development of swiftness of foot, acuteness of eye and ear, and of endurance ?
As long as the environment remains about the same, little or no change may occur in the structure or specific characters of animals ; but the whole organization is kept up to the highest grade of efficiency. Should there, however, be a gradual change in the conditions under which any animal is living, there would come about a corresponding change in the animal itself. Should there, for example, be developed a gradual increase in the speed of our dogs, there would, I doubt not, occur a corresponding- improvement in the swiftness of our rabbits. I can see no reason for supposing that natural selection would not have the same effect here as man's selection does in the case of trotting horses.
Darwin's theory of natural selection was based almost entirely on ob- servations made on domesticated animals and plants. Organisms in a state of nature did not seem to him to be subject to such frequent and extensive variations, ^^e are only now beginning to appreciate how numerous and how important these variations are. They do not affect in only a slight degree a single organ of one individual in a decade or a century, but isrobably every organ of every individual, and to a veiy appreciable extent. The proverbial unlikeness of the individuals of every species is due to this variation. Wallace, in his "Darwinism '' has given
us most impressive illustrations of this variation. ]Most of these illus- trations have been drawn from the publications of our countryman, Dr. J. A. Allen, and relate to the winter birds of Florida. Allen made large collections and took accurate measurements of thos^e portions of the body which are especially depended upon by naturalists in determining species, the length of body, wings, tail, tarsus, toes, and bill. All these parts were found to vary independently of one another, and the variations from the mean length often amounted to from 12 to 25 per cent, of the mean length. While, too, most of the parts measured were not far from the mean on each side, yet there were always a considerable number of individuals of each species that furnished measurements wide of the mean. The same principle is shown by Wallace to hold good among such lizards and mammals as have been studied. AVhat is greatly needed is more extended observations among all classes of animals. I have examined some of our common snakes with reference to this matter of variation. We get the specific characters among snakes from the number of rows of scales across the back, the number br^ad plates along the abdomen and on the tail, and from the kind and arrangement of the colors. Anybody who has studied snakes has soon learned how extremely variable are their colors. Among specimens of the spreading adder, for example, may be found snakes of a plain gray or olive color without other markings, snakes with mere indications of blotcTies. snakes with most conspicuous spots of bright red or yellow and black, and snakes which are plain black. The other characters vary to a perplexing extent. What are merely individual, or at most, varietal peculiarities, have often furnished the basis for new species. In order to bring before you the range of the variations in im- portant parts of these animals, I present the results of estimates which show how four species of our common snakes vary. ■■
These are the common garter snake [Euiainla sistalis), the black snake {Bascanion constrictor), the smooth, green snake {Cydopfm vernal'k), and the ring-necked snake {Diadophis pundaius.) From these it appears that in the number of the body vertebrte the garter snake varies from the aver- age to the extent of 14 per cent., the black snake 6 per cent., the green snake only 4.5 per cent, and the ring- necked snake 13 per cent. In number of caudal vertebrae, the garter snake varies 35 per cent., the black snake 20
* The results here giveu have been deduced from the tables of measurements and countsof ventral and caudal plates giveu in Baird and (Jirard's "Serpeuts of North America." Any considerable collection of the species above studied would furnish still sreater deviations from the means.
87
per cent., the green snake 23 per cent., and the ring-necked snake 23.5 per cent. In proportion of tail to body the garter snake varies 9.4 per cent., the black snake 28 per cent., the green snake 25 per cent., and the ring- necked snake over 35 per cent. There is scarcely a doubt that every character in each of these species will be found to be as unstable as those which have been studied. And it must be observed, too, that each of the characters varies independently of the others, so that we may get any combination that we may want. If breeders should find it to their inter- ests to raise a varied assortinent of black snakes they could, doubtless, by careful selection and crossing, produce short-bodied snakes with long tails, long-bodied snakes with short tails, or snakes extremely short or very long in both parts. Much more might we expect that natural se- lection, which has more abundant materials to work upon and unlimited time, should be able to produce varieties and species to suit the require- ments of the changing conditions of geological periods.
While the main proposition of Darwin and Wallace that species arise from earlier species by descent with modification, has been almost unani- mously accepted by the scientific world, a number of scientific authorities have, within recent years expressed more or less dissatisfaction with the prominence that Darwin and Wallace and their followers have given to the doctrine of Natural Selection as an explanation of organic evolution. This dissent has expressed itself in degrees from questioning whether or not natural selection has been the only factor concerned, to open decla- rations that it has had little or nothing to do with evolution. ( )f course, those who deny the efliciency of selection to transform species endeavor to find some other principles or forces which, in their estimation, act as efficient causes, and thus we are beginning to witness the evolution of various schools of evolution. And here it seems proper, as a matter of justice to Darwin, to deny that he, at least in his later works, maintained that natural selection is the only influence at work to bring about changes in organisms. One cannot read his works with even moderate attention without recognizing that he admitted the operation of the very forces and principles that many of these later evolutionists rely on to explain the phenomena of organic change. < )nly Darwin did not assign the same high value to these factors that some authors do now. Wallace, ijn the other hand, in his latest work advocates the earlier position of Darwin, and stands for what he calls the "overwhelming importance of Natural Sele<tion over all other agencies in the production of new species."
38
Now, it matters not the degree of importance that we give to Natural Selection as a principle in organic evolution, it does not appear that we can regard it as furnishing a final solution of the phenomena to be ex- plained. This objection has been justly urged: Natural selection acts only on characters which have been already produced and have become either useful or hurtful. By what means have they been produced? Before they can be selected they must exist; what principles or forces gave them their existence? It has been urged that if there are intiuences that can bring characters up to the stage where selection can begin to act on them, the same intiuences might continue to perfect them. Darwin saw the situation clearly. He says, in his " Descent of Man: " "With respect to the causes of variability, we are in all cases very ignorant, but we can see that in man, as in the lower animals, they stand in some relation with the conditions to. which each species has been exposed dur- ing several generations." He then mentions, as some of the probable causes of change, the direct and definite action of changed conditions, the efiects of increased use and disuse of parts, arrests of development, corre- lated variations, &c. Under such circumstances it becomes a legitimate subject of inquiry what those fox'ces and conditions are which have been active in initiating changes in organisms, and what effect, if any, Natural Selection has had in perpetuating and accumulating these new characters and of repressing others.
One of the most recent and most thoroughly elaborated attempts to ac- count for the variations of organisms is that of Dr. Aug. Weismann. It is presented in a series of lectures delivered between the years 1880 and 1890. The fundamental idea of his theory he has denominated "the con- tinuity of the germ-plaf<vi." All except the lowest animals are produced from eggs, which are essentially cells. When the egg is fertilized, it de- velops into an embryo by a process of division which leads to the pro- duction of an immense number of cells. These, becoming more and more differentiated in definite ways, form the tissues and organs of the adult being. Thus, from a simple egg there arises an animal which inherits the general features of the parent and even many of its minor peculiari- ties of form and habits. At some time during embryonic development there are separated from the other cells of the organism certain cells which in due season develop into eggs, as a provision for the continua- tion of the species. It appears hitherto to have been assumed that the materials of these eggs, or germ-cells, is derived by some process of trans-
;5i)
formation from that composing the ordinary, but not yet greatly modi- fied, cells of the body. Dr. AVeismann, on the other hand, maintains that the egg, or more exactly the nucleus of the egg, contains a substance, his germ-plasm, which possesses a peculiar chemical, and more especially molecular, structure, and which is the bearer of " the whole of the inher- ited tendencies of development." In the process of the development of the embryo, not all of this germ plasm is consumed in the construction of the body ; but a small portion is set aside and remains in the body of the embryo unchanged, and destined to enter at the end into the forma- tion of the eggs which shall give being to the next generation. The ma- terials of the body cells Weismann calls somatoplasm, to distinguish it from the germ-plasm. The germ-plasm, although borne about in the body of the organism that in time will produce offspring, and though nourished by its somatoplasm, is whollj^ distinct from the latter, and is very slightly if at all affected by it. Weismann says of it: " The germ-plasm, or idio- plasm of the germ-cell, certainly possesses an exceedingly complex min" ute structure, but it is nevertheless a substance of extreme stability, for it absorbs nourishment and grows enormously without the least change in its complex molecular structure." Weismann even maintains that this reproduction of the germ plasm without change may go on for thou- sands of years. He has compared the germ- plasm to a creeping root- stock which at intervals sends up a vigorous shoot. The shoot flourishes for awhile and dies, but the rootstock survives, to produce other shoots in indefinite number. The germ-plasm enjoys a sort of immortality.
The cause of heredity has always been a mystery. How is it that a cell which has not the slightest resemblance to the animal that produced it can go through a complicated series of divisions and transformations and at last gradually, but unerring!}^, reproduce even to minute details the structure and foim of the pai'ent ? How is it that two eggs, indistin- guishable from each other, but laid by difi"erent animals, developing per- haps under identical circumstances, can reproduce exact copies of their respective parents? Darwin attempted to give an explanation by assum- ing that each cell of any organism emits minute particles, called by him gemmules, which enter the germ-cells and become there representatives of the cells of the whole body. The germ-cells must according to this the- ory contain millions of gemmules. When development of the egg occurs the contained gemmules determine the reproduction of their respective cells in due order of time, place, and form. When any part of the body
40
of the parent has undergone variation, this will be represented in the egg by the gemmules of the part and may thereby be inherited. The im- mense number of gemmules required to effect the results, as well as the lack of sutticient evidence of a positive kind in favor of Darwin's theory, have prevented its general acceptance.
On Weismann's theory, heredity follows from the assumption that both parent and offspring are derived from the same mass of germ plasm. That which had given origin to the parent must be expected to develop into a similar organism in the offspring. That the germ-plasm develops into the peculiar structure and form of both is due to its molecular struc- ture, the result of gradual modifications which have been accumulating during the ages that have elapsed since their earliest ancestor received its being.
Some extremely important conclusions issue from the acceptance of this theory of AVeismann's. If the germ-plasm, borne about in the body of any organism, protected and nourished by it, does not have its mole- cular constitution, on which the character of the offspring depends, at all affected by the state of the parent's body then none of what are called acquired characters can be transmitted from one generation to another. This fact, if fact it be, strikes at the very root of other promising theo- ries. Then none of the results of the use and disuse of organs will be transmitted; none of the direct effects of the climate or soil, or any of the environment on the body of the parent, will show in the descendants ; nor will any mutilations be inherited. The heat or the cold, the drought or the Hood, may produce the most profound effects on the animal or the plant, in the way of altering its form or structure or color, but the off- spring will not directly inherit any of these results.
Since, however, Weismann firmly believes that existing species have been derived from older species by descent and modification, how does he account for the variations that must have arisen ? This is done on the theory of sexual mixture. The germ-plasm of every individual of every species has certain peculiarities, which are passed on, with greater or less intensity, to the next generation. The male animal or plant has certain hereditary tendencies, that of the female different tendencies. When the germ-cells of the two individuals have united, an organism develops that is different in some respects from both the parents, being, as Weismann expresses it, a compromise between the two developmental tendencies. Since the numbers of individuals of every species are numerous and no
41
two are alike, new combinations of the germ-plasm are continually aris- ing, and these express themselves in still other individuals which are different from any that have ever lived. Amid all these variations, which indeed will affect every organ, are some which are hurtful to the organ- ism, and others which are advantageous. Such variations will come under the influence of natural selection, the individuals possessing hurt- ful variations being destroj^ed, those with advantageous variations being preserved and made the means of transmitting on to future generations the improvement. (Organic evolution, then, according to Weismann, de- pends on two factors, variation brought about by sexual mixture, and natural selection. Indeed, according to him, the production of variations that may be inherited constitutes the whole significance of sex ; it is sim- ply a device of nature for the origination of variations through which natural selection may effect improvement. As a corollary from this prop- osition Weismann deduces the conclusion that any organisms which do not reproduce sexually, such as certain i)arthenogenetic insects and cru.s- taeeans, cannot undergo variation; and should their environment change to any considerable degree they must perish. However, since the ])ubli- cation of his lectures, Weismann has been compelled t<> recede from this position.
But if it be true that external influences have had nothing directly to do in bringing about inheritable changes in organisms, and if the species of one age have descended from more ancient species, how did the hered- itary individual differences arise in the beginning? With most other evolutionists he believes that the Metazoa have been derived from the Protozoa. In the Protozoa, there is no reproduction by means of eggs. The animal is at once parent and egg. When reproduction occurs, it is usually accomplished by the division of the animal into two portions of equal size and similar form, so that it is impossible to say that either is parent or offspring. Each part reproduces in a similar way ; and since there appears to be no reason why, in case the environment remains favorable, any of the products of division should ever die, AVeismann re- gards them all as having potential immortality.
It must be remembered now that AVeismann admits that external forces and conditions, as well as the use anil disuse of organs, may affect pro- foundly the organization of even the higher animals, although he denies that any of the direct effects will be passed on the next generation. In like manner the Protozoan is influenced by external conditions and would
42
have changes wrought in its body. Xow since its body is at the same time the reprodueUce element, whatever modifications have arisen in the body would be inherited by the two portions into which it would divide. " If," says Weismann, " a Protozoon, by constantly struggling against the me- chanical inrtuence of currents in water, were to gain a somewhat denser and more resistant protoplasm, or were to acquire the power of adhering more strongly than the other individuals of his species, the peculiarity in question would be directly continued on into its two descendants, for the latter are at first nothing more than the two halves of the former." By the time, therefore, that some of the Protozoa, through more and more intimate association into colonies, by differentiations of the cells for the performance of different functions, and the production of germ-cells as distinguished from the body-cells, became modified into the primitive Metazoa, those individual differences had arisen which, constantly multi- plied ever since by sexual mixture, have furnished the materials on which Natural Selection has worked to produce all the living animal forms that now exist.
It must be understood that, as regards the reproductive elements of the higher animals, AVeismann contends for the continuity of the germ-plasm, not for that of the germ-cells. Embryology proves that the latter cannot be maintained. As Weismann says, " continuity of the germ-cells does not now take place, except in very rare instances." In certain insects there are, at the very beginning of development, a few cells separated from the others and afterwards received into the body of the embryo, in order later to develop into eggs. In some crustaceans, the germ-cells be- come distinct when about thirty cells have been produced. In verte- brates they do not usually become distinct from those composing the body until the embryo has been completely formed. Among the Hydroids, re- production occurs largely by budding. The buds may develop into inde- pendent bodies, jelly fishes, which swimming away and attaining a large size, give origin to the germ cells. These do not make their appearance until after hundreds and thousands of cell -generations have been passed through. They arise oi'iginally from certain cells of the ectoderm, but make long migrations to the places whei'e they finally undergo develop- ment into perfect eggs. Among plants, a fertilized ovule gives origin to an embryo. This may develop into a large tree, which finally will, at the tii3s of branches a hundred feet away, produce new ovules. Through millions of cells the germ-plasm must have made its way to reach those
48
terminal buds. And the cells must contain this precious .substance with- out showing its presence. Weismann says, " It is therefore clear that all the cells of the embryo must for a long time function as somatic cells ; and none of them can be reserved as germ-cells and nothing else." How then does he explain the transferrence, through such long distances, of the germ- plasm ? Keferring to the Hydroids he says : " I concluded that the germ-plasm is present in a very finely divided and therefore invisible state in certain somatic cells from the very be.iiinning of enibrj'^onic de- velopment, and that it is transmitted through innumerable cell-genera- tions to those remote individuals of the colony in which the sexual pro- ducts are formed."
But this transportation of the germ-plasm through so many generations of cells is by no means the only difiiculty that besets Weismann's theory. There is a number of plants, among them the begonia, which may be pro- pagated from pieces of the leaves. It would almost appear as if single cells of the leaf would reproduce the plant perfectly. Among the ferns it is no uncommon thing for new plants to spring from the surface of the leaves or of the stalks. Among mosses almost any cell of the root-hairs will develop into new plants. As pointed out by Strassburger, the germ- plasm must, in these cases, not merely travel through the plant to the reproductive origans, but be widely diffused throughout every part of the plant, and Weismann admits that this is the case. Similar phenomena occur among animals. If the fresh water Hydra is divided into two pieces, each will develop into a perfect Hydra. Trembly, in his experiments on these things, minced some of them into as small pieces as he could, and almost every piece developed into a perfect animal. It is stated that as many as forty were thus reproduced from a single one. When certain worms are cut in two, each part develops into a perfect individual. All animals show some power of reproducing lost and injured parts. How shall we explain these facts of reproduction and restoration? Is the restoration of the hydra due to the presence of germ-plasm or not? If it is claimed that it is due to the germ-plasm, it may be replied that it has not reproduced the animal, but only a part, that part which was missing, it may be the half of it or the greater part of it. When the worm is cut in two one cut surface may develop a new tail, the other surface a new head. Had the cut been made the thickness of a cell further forward, those cells that in the first case engaged in developing a new head would probably as readily have gone to work to produce a new tail. Does germ-
44
plasm possess the power of reproducing the whole animal, or the head end or the tail end, according to circumstances ? If the germ- plasm is con- cerned in these restorations of parts, we can hardly exclude it from other cases of restorations, and this will lead us to the admission that germ- plasm is present in nearly all the tissues of all animals. If the position is taken that the germ-plasm is not concerned in the cases that have been referred to, but some degraded product of germ-plasm, then we may say that such materials have powers curiously similar to those of germ-plasm itself, but even more wonderful. To what extent is the material of the cells of the cut surface of the worm different from that of germ-plasm itself, when those cells have the inherited power to produce either head or tail as demanded by the needs of the worm? If the molecular struct- ure of germ-cells and of body-cells is so similar, is it impossible that some of the body-cells may undergo retransformation into germ-cells? Further- more, whether this suppositious reproductive material is or is not con- cerned in the restoration of the minced hydra it must, if it exists at all, be present in all the cells. For, so far as we may judge, each hydra that has grown from a minute bit of hydra is capable of giving origin, when divided, to many new hydras, and these to others indefinitely. Since the last of such a series would, without doubt, be able to produce eggs the germ-plasm must have been contained in all the cells of all the series.
Weismann's conception is that the highly organized germ-plasm found in the nucleus is, after the first division, no longer what it was before, except that part which has been reserved, — is indeed no longer germ-plasm at all. At each subsequent division its structure becomes simpler as it gives origin to more and more complex tissues ; that is, its energy runs down as it does work in forming tissues. He claims that, when the germ- plasm has thus become simplified, its character as germ-plasm can never be restored. It might be supposed that, if we could find any cells which, having once formed a part of any body-tissue, should take upon itself the powers of a reproductive cell, "Weismann's theory would stand disproved. We then direct attention to the somatic cells of hydroids Avhich develop into eggs. But Weismann accounts for this by supposing that the germ- plasm enters the cells and takes the place of the germ-plasm.
However, it appears to me that it must be admitted that the germ- plasm is so widely diffused through the tissues of many, if not all, organ- isms, and is so much like the substance of many other cells in its repro- ductive powers, as to make it doubtful whether there is any such dis-
45
tinct material. We may not be able to prove tbat it does not exist, but we may do as we do with other ghosts, prove the superfluousness of its existence. It is indeed a wonderful property that ia possessed by the germ-cells of the animal, that of reproducing the form, organs, tissues, and millions of cells of the parent : but the cells that can reproduce the severed head of any animal, with its many sense organs, appear to me to possess a property even more wonderful. For the germ-cell has a struc- ture and corresi)onding capacities which are the ingrained results of countless repetitions of the act of reproduction, while nothing of this kind can be said with regard to the cells which reproduce the head, or the tail, or the foot. It looks as if every cell o,f the whole body were originally endowed with the capability of reproducing all the others in <lue order; as if, indeed, something like Darwin's theory of pangenesis were really true. Through subsequent high differentiation of structure, or through unfavorable surroundings, the cells may not be able to accom- plish the restoration, but they show that they possess at least a memory of their old duties.
In his last essay, that which treats of the ti'ansmission of acquired characters, Weismann reasserts strongly their non-transmissibility, be they produced in any way whatever. At the same time, he seems to me to introduce a new explanation of variation, and to make admis^ons which may prove fatal to his theory. It must be recollfcted that Weis- mann has been contending for the stability of the germ- plasm; that, in order to account for the variations that individuals show, he has invoked the agency of sexual mixture, which he regards as an invention of nature for that special purpose; that he has claimed that animals reproducing by parthenogenesis can undergo no adaptive changes. When speaking of the effect of external influences he says : " Without altogether denj^- ing that such influences may di'cctly modify the germ-cells, I neverthe- less believe that they have no share in the production of hereditary indi- vidual differences." He has just previously maintained that the trans- formation of a species can take place only through the accumulation of these individual differences. Now in the last essay, in discussing certain objections which have been urged against his doctrines, he contends that external conditions, light, heat, moisture, nutrition, and their opposites, can produce great changes in the body, but none directly in the germ- plasm. He grants, however, that the environment may act indmctly on the germ-plasm, so as to bring about important changes in the characters
46
of animals and plants. He declares that he has never doubted the trans- mission of changes which depend on alterations of the germ-plasm. He then inquires: "And how could the germ-plasm be changed except by the operation of external influences, using the words in their widest sense?" To this we may reply, that he has hitherto attributed all changes to sex- ual mixture alone. If he is willing to admit that use and disuse of or- gans, changes in nutrition, and in the environment in general, may bring about modifications of organisms, he will not find it difficult to come to an agreement with many of his opponents, even if he does insist on post- poning the results for a few generations. A few may insist that some characters acquired by the parent, for instance by the use of an organ, may be inherited by the next generation, but most persons would con- tend onlj' that a predisposition to the reproduction of the character is inherited.
PAPERS READ.
Condensation of acetophenone with ketoi.s bv mean.s ok dilute pota.s- siuM cyanide. By Alex. Smith.
, [abstract.]
It has been proven for some years that when beuzaldehyde is boiled in dilute alcohol with a small quantity of potassium cyanide, two molecules of benzaldehyde unite to form benzoin. The present paper describes a class of cases where the same reagent has the power of causing the union of two bodies with the elimination of water— a condensation. The inter- action takes place between a ketol such as benzoin, on the one hand and a ketone such as acetophenone on the other. For example benzoin and acetophenone in dilute alcoholic solution, in presence of a little potassium cyanide, yield on boiling desyl-acetophenone. (Jour. Chem. Soc. LVII, p. 643.)
C, H— CO— CH-()li + ('l 1 — CO-C,H,=
' ■ I
C,;H-,
C,H-,— CO-CH~CH,— CO— C,H-, tH,0
1
C,;H-,
The interaction is now found to extend to other ketols. From cuminoin
47
and acetophenone, cnmino-desylacetophenone was prepared accordingto tlie
equation —
C,„H,,0, ^C,H,0=C,,H,„0,+H,0
It is a substance melting at 145° C. With phenyl hydrazine it yields an o-diazine derivative and its constitution as a 1:4 diketone was proved by its yielding furfurane and pyrrol derivatives. Piperonoin, f uroin, and ben- zoylcarbinol have also been used, and the interaction seems to hold for them also. The products have not yet been fully investigated.
In all cases a small amount of another, much less soluble, product is formed. The equation for this action seems in the case of benzoin to be — :]C,H-,-CUH+C,HsO=C,,,H,,0,+2H,()
The examination of these products is in progress.
Condensation op acetone witji benzoin hy means of dillte potassium CYANIDE. By Alex. Smith.
[abstract. J In connection with the work mentioned in the preceding paper, experi- ments were also made where the ketol was benzoin but acetone was used in place of acetophenone. The main course of the interaction was an entirely difterent one. A substance melting at 24G° C was produced accord- ing to the e(iuation —
:K'„H,-Ct)H+C,H,;0=C,.H,„0, 2H,0 It appears to possess the following constitution :
0
H H H
CJI-,
C / \ H-C (•
!l I
C„H-— C C
^ /
c
/ ^ C.H^ OH
It yields a monoxim and a monophenyl hydrazoue. With acetic anhy- dride it yields the acetate of triphenyl phenol. From this triphenyl phenol itself is obtained by saponification. Distillation over zinc dust yields the hydrocarbon triphenyl benzene and the original substance yields the same
4S
product under similar treatment. A substance, found to have almost ident- ical properties, is described by Japp (Chem. 8oc. Jour., vol. LYII, p. 783). He had formerly ascribed to it the formula Cjr.HjoO,. In the later note he points out that the analysis agrees approximately with the formula C04H20O2. The substance was prepared by Japp's method, namely the action of dilute caustic potash on a mixture of benzoin and acetone in alco- holic solution. It appears to be the same body as that obtained by the action of potassium cyanide, but acetic anhydride acts on it with extreme difficulty only and distillation over zinc dust yields none of the hydro- carbon.
Pyrone and pvridone derivatives from benzoyl acetone. By Alex. Smith.
[abstract.] Conrad and Guthzeit's reaction was applied to benzoyl acetone. Cupro- benzoyl acetone was found to yield with phosgene a pyrone derivative pos- sessing the formula—
O
II
C
'' \
C,H-— CO— C ('— CO-C, H,
II II
CH,-C C— CH,
\ /
()
Dimethyldi-benzoyl pyrone melts at 188° C With phenyl hydrazine it yields a diphenylhydrazone and with ammonia the oxygen of the ring is replaced by the group : NH and dibenzoyl-lutidone is formed. Similarly the action of aniline gives dibenzoylphenyl-lutidone. These substances are bases who.se hydro-chlorides form double salts with platinum tetra- chloride.
Carhon dioxide in the urine. By T. C. Van Nuy.s and K. E. Lyon.s,
From the intense alkalinity of the normal urates, as well as the di and basic phosphates of potassium and sodium, we were led to believe that, ordinarily the urine is not alkaline from the presence of the carbonates of
49
the alkali metals ; that in all probability COo is not in combination in nor- mal or moderately alkaline urine.
To determine this, the CO 2 in the total urine of 24 hours was estimated after employing, (1) mixed diet, (2) vegetable diet, (3) after injesting large doses of neutral tartrate of sodium.
(1). Mixed diet — Urine acid in reaction. First day . . . 0.64 gram. CO 3. Fourth day • . 0.56 gram. CO 2.
Second day . . 0.49 " " Fifth day . . .0 45 "
Third day . . . 0.60 " " Sixth day . . . 0.79 " "
Average for each day, 0.588 gram. COj.
(2). Vegetable diet — T'rine strongly alkaline, but did not effervesce on the addition of an acid.
First day 1.20 gram. CO o. -»
Second day • • 1.16 " " I Average for each day, 1.09 gram. CO^. Third day. . . 0.93 " " i
(3). After injesting neutral tartrate of sodium urine became alkaline, which was in part due to carbonates, as the urine effervesced slightly on the addition of acid.
First period 48 hours Gram. C^ H4 Na, Og Gram. CO2 in the urine following "mixed diet": taken in 24 hours: of 24 hours:
First day 10 1.42
Second day 10 1.65
Second period 48 hours following "vegetable diet":
First day 15 1.30
Second day 15-17 2.67
From our investigations we conclude:
1. Combined CO2 is not ordinarily a constituent of normal urine.
2. When CO2 does appear in combination, it is owing to the excessive alkalinity of the blood when it combines with the hydrates of potassium and sodium.
3. Alkalinity of normal urine, unless excessive in degree, is caused by di- or tri-basic phosphates, and normal urates of potassium and sodium.
Results of estimation of chlorixk in .mineral waters by Volhard's
PLAN. By Sherman Davis.
In "Die Untersuchung des Wassers," by Drs. Tierman and Gartner, page
132, we find directions for the estimation of chlorine in mineral waters.
The method given is essentially that of Volhard. It is the object of this
4
oO
paper to call attention to two points in this process: First, though it has been remarked by previous observers that there is a reaction between the diver chloride formed and the ammonium sulphocyanide, is not this reaction sufficient to produce an appreciable error? We here give some observa- tions made, with this point in view.
WITH DISTILLED WATER.
|
> |
0. |
Time Min. |
Filtered. |
To ^■ Na CI. |
tVN. Ag.NOg |
iV N Am. Sulph. |
Ferric Alum. |
HNO, (1.2)' |
|
- |
||||||||
|
1 . . |
5 |
no |
4 |
1.62 |
o |
3 |
o |
|
|
9 |
5 |
5^ |
1.85 |
|||||
|
a |
3 |
1.70 |
||||||
|
4 |
2 |
" |
1.70 |
|||||
|
5 |
3 |
a |
1.75 |
|||||
|
fi |
o |
u |
1.65 |
|||||
|
7 |
u |
(1 |
1.70 |
|||||
|
8 |
1 2 |
(( |
1.80 |
These data seem to indicate that even though the time be reduced to a minimum, the results are inconsistent and misleading. Now these varia- tions may be eliminated by a process of filtering. Introduce a quantity of sodium chloride, say 4cc from a ^\ normal solution, into a 200cc graduated flask, add 4cc nitric acid (1.2 sp. gr.), free from nitrous acUl, and with dis- tilled water at 15° C fill to mark. Mix well. When the silver chloride has been separated, filter off lOOcc of the fluid through a dry filter. Introduce the filtrate into a titrating flask, add 2— 3cc sat. sol. ferric alum and titrate with the j\ nor. sol. am. sulphocyanide, till the addition of one drop causes a light brown color to appear. This color once produced will be permanent. The results of such a device are shown by the following data :
|
No. |
Time |
Filtered. |
Na CI. |
Ag. NO3 |
j\ N Am. Sulph. |
Ferric Alum. |
HNO, (1.2) |
||||
|
1 2 3 4 5 () 7 8 |
yes |
4cc |
7( |
:c ( ( |
1.55 1.50 u |
These results agree with the quantities introduced and are constant. This device was employed in estimating the chlorine in the waters from AVest
51
Baden, French Lick, Mt. Aris, Indian and Trinity Springs. The results were constant and accurate. It also holds in waters containing much mineral matter and organic matter to 350 parts in 100,000.
Second. "Will there, without filtering, be an appreciable error? We pro- duce the following data :
WITH DISTILLED WATER.
|
No. |
Time. |
' 10 -^^ NaCl. |
tVN Ag.NO. |
TO Am. Sulph. |
Ferric Alum |
HNO3 (1.2) |
|||
|
1 2 ■> 4 o 6 / 8 |
1 5 10 12 10 10 10 10 |
3cc 5 '•> (> 6 |
3.0CC 3.5 3.5 6.5 6.5 |
.7Scc .75 .75 .82 .75 1.00 .88 1.00 |
3 |
3 |
We differed from the authors in this — that the solution was gently agitated until the color no longer disappeared. With such a standard the error may reach 1.77 pts. in 100,000 pts. as shown by the eighth titration. The observa- tions justify the following inferences :
First. There is an appreciable reaction between the silver chloride and the ammonium sulphocyanide.
Second. The error varies directly with the quantity of chlorine present, and the time employed.
Third. When the reaction of chlorine upon silver nitrate is effected in the presence of ammonium sulphocyanide, the results are inconstant.
Fourth. That it is necessary to filter off the silver chloride, before add- ing the ferric salt.
Fifth. That by filtering the results are eery accurate.
Sixth. That if the solution, unfiltered, be allowed to stand ten minutes, the reactions which take place, will produce very appreciable errors.
Some suggestions to teachers of science or mathematics ix high schools. By Thos. C. Van Nuys.
It is the purpose of the writer to endeavor to indicate, as briefly as prac- ticable, the spirit which should influence teachers of science or mathematics in high schools. »
It is needless to state in this connection that the spirit, in which a teacher
52
performs his duty, arises from his conception of what education is, conse- quently, correct views of education in general, are of very great import- ance to teachers. No system of education can exist, without grave defects, unless there is in the system a certain degree of uniformity in the curricu- lum of study. Classes of studies for periods of time should be so grouped, that by the pursuit of them, the pupil is led to the highest degree of disci- pline and culture. Fortunately, the course of study in the public schools of this country is pretty well formulated, but, unfortunately, the course is better adapted for preparing pupils for technical or business education than for scholarship or the learned professions. This defect, however, may, in part, be remedied by the efficiency of teachers.
In order that the teacher of elementary science or mathematics in a high school may become proficient in his work he should first determine what benefit are the pupils to derive from a course of instruction in mathematics a ad elementary science. Notwithstanding, the tendency of the age is in favor of technical education, the fact is, no class of studies can take the place of the inflected languages, history and literature for a high degree of discipline and culture, and, that full benefit should be derived from lin- guistic studies, they should be introduced, early in the course, as training in them is easier at an early age.
The study of the humanities, if pursued early in life, when the emo- tional faculties are springing into existence, results in refining, cultivating the tastes and engendering a broad philanthropy. This is readily under- stood when it is taken into consideration that through the study of the ancient languages, the pupil becomes acquainted with different phases of human thought, and, because different from modern thought, they are not the less human.
With thorough training in these studies, early in life, the pupil becomes disciplined and refined, disciplined, by long continued mental drill, neces- sary in acquiring knowledge of the inflected languages, and refined, by sympathy for mankind acquired by a knowledge of the vicissitudes through which the human race has passed. This comes from the study of the hu- manities being subjective as well as objective. On the other hand, the study of science and mathematics is objective. In these pursuits, the emo- tions may be dormant, while reason is called into activity. If this be true, it is readily understood why the study of languages, history and literature should precede the study of the sciences and higher mathematics.
To reach tlie highest results in education the tastes, the moral faculties
53
and the sensibilities should be developed as well as the intellectual ; other- wise, the development is not symmetrical.
The teacher should not encourage the popular opinion that the education which does not enable a person to superintend a factory, make shoes, or build a bridge, is worthless.
In this materialistic age we are apt to employ our educational forces so as to intensify the mad strife we have about us, to make prominent those studies, by a knowledge of which, wealth is acquired and to neglect those studies which tend to refine, temper and balance the mind.
The word discipline is perhaps the most difficult term in pedagogical science to define. No attempt will be made to offer a definition here, further than to state, that by discipline, the pupil has power of self-con- trol, that by it, undivided attention can be concentrated to the subject un- der consideration. By discipline, there is economy in mental work. The mind is disciplined when it possesses the art of thinking. To many it would seem absurd that it requires many years of systematic study, under good instruction to read a book, or study a subject with pi-ofit and, there- fore, with understanding, and yet, it is true. While it is claimed that the study of the inflected languages, history and literature, pursued early in life, is imperative for discipline, culture and scholarship, yet if the study of higher mathematics and science be not subsequently pursued (and it might be added in proper spirit), the work of preparation is incomplete.
It is a recognized fact that the body soon becomes accustomed to certain movements which are, with sufficient practice, made almost unconsciously, so the mind, with practice, soon becomes accustomed to certain processes of reasoning.
Although the study of the humanities presents many aspects of thought, yet the mind of the classical student runs in grooves. For him the study of higher mathematics opens up a new field of thought as the processes of reasoning are essentially dift'erent from those employed in the study of the humanities.
Method and system in the processes of reasoning are characteristic of the mathematical mind.
The study of chemistry is of importance as a means of cultivation of the powers of observation, but, perhaps, the greatest value of the study of chemistry, is the knowledge of the constitution of matter and the changes it undergoes, producing new bodies. The cultured pupil reads here a won- derful story. His mind dwells on the growth and consequent changes of
54
living languages, so rapid are these changes that a language is scarcely the same each decade. Every period of history is stamped with changes. Na- tions grow like plants, remain in the developed state a time, then they de- cline and upon their ruins other nations spring up, likewise to perish. The student reads in chemical science a similar story told in symbolic lan- guage. Hitherto he knew but little of the laws of matter, he now learns that matter and its laws form the basis of all. Were it not for the facts on which the atomic theory is based and were it not that forces are evolved by the reduction of organic matter there could be no mental process, in fact no brain, no muscle. Now, while this expresses a phase of materialistic philosophy yet the pupil who has a thorough training in the studies of the humanities is not easily thrown oflf' his balance. By his long continued training he recognizes the fact that the moral sense or sentiment is a po- tent factor in nature, that man is not a selfish animal seeking to survive that he may enjoy his sensuous pleasures. Although the age is becoming more rationalistic, yet there never was a time when society was subject to so much vaccination, frivolity and extremes. The craze for something new or sensational precludes sober thought. We may as a nation excel all others in inventions and conveniences and yet we may become a nation of artisans and tradesmen. The pupil who is educated in the humanities, and therefore has a disciplined mind, does not seek for wild theories, even if founded on the results of modern research. Too many men, who repre- sent the results of the new education are without convictions. The char- acter of too many is reflected by current of popular opinion. The greatest need of this age is a generation of men, cultured and disciplined, who have convictions and therefore are not moved by the great waves of thought which often sweep over the country like an epidemic.
The teacher of science, or higher mathematics, in a preparatory school, should consider himself employed to build over, or bridge a chasm at the end of a long line. He should consider his work a necessity to fill out, and round up the intellectual and moral character of the pupils, under his charge.
However diflferent his work may appear from the work of his colleague who teaches the Greek language, or his colleague who studies, with his classes, Shakspeare, Dante or Milton, his work is along the same line. The teacher of science will benefit his pupils much more by confining his instruction to general principles, whether he teaches elementary chemistry, botany or zoology.
After having spent years of persistent study of languages, literature and history, acquiring a knowledge of the inflections of verbs, memorizing the definition of words and becoming familiar with the outline of all forms of speech, with the political divisions of countries of the remote past — in short, with the life of a world in its childhood and now to be introduced into the world of the present, constitutes the most interesting period in the life of the pupil. The teacher guides with watchful care the mental processes awakened by the study of nature. He witnesses a wonderful mental development, wonderful because it springs from a rich store-house of knowledge and because the mental processes are new.
After all, the ultimate object of education is utilitarian in character. The educated man or woman, who is a useful member of society, who is of value to the state, must be of the world. He must be brought in intimate relationship with the affairs of the present, and, for this purpose, the study of science and mathematics is well adapted. A full degree of utilitarianism is not wholly technical in kind. To become useful in any of the learned professions all of the discipline afforded by classical and scientific training, in addition to the training in the professional studies proper, is required.
If education is to be the i^afeguard of the nation, if it is to prevent the enactment of extreme measures, if it is to act as the balance wheel in the machinery of the social state, it must result in the development of all the resources of the intellect as well as the sense of justice and love of hu- manity.
The siGAR HEKT IN Indiana. Bv H. A. Huston.
Forms of nitrogen for wheat. By H. A. Huston.
A copi'Ei; a:mmonium oxide. By P. S. Baker.
Dl BENZYL CAEBINAMINE. By W. A. XOVES.
[ABSTRACT.]
[Published in the American Chemical Journal, 14, 225.] Di-benzyl carbinamine was prepared by the reduction of the oxim of di- benzyl-ketone by means of sodium and absolute alcohol.
The new base melts at 47° and boils at 330°. The chloride, Cj ■, Hj , NH2. HCl, separates in compact crystals which melt at 205°. The chloro-plati- nate, the nitrite and the di-benzyl carbinamine sulphocarbamimate of di-
/~1 TT "WW
benzyl carbinamine, q h^^ NH HS-^^^' ^^^^ ^^^° prepared. B Especial interest attaches to the nitrite which is stable at ordinary tem- peratures, and a dilute solution of which can be boiled with very slight de- composition. In these respects the base is intermediate in its properties between the "alicyclic" bases of Bamberger and the ordinary aliphatic amines.— [Rose Polytechnic Institute, Dec. 1S91.
The character of well waters in a thickly popllated area. By W.
A. No YES.
[abstract.] A table was shown giving the results of the analysis of a number of well- waters taken from wells in various parts of the city of Terre Haute. The amounts of free and of "albuminoid" ammonia in these well waters is us- ually very low, but the amounts of chlorine and of nitrates, and especially the latter, when compared with the amounts of the same substances found in a well water in the country east of the city show that the waters of the city wells are seriously contaminated with surface drainage. The fact that a large proportion of the cases of typhoid fever and of dysentery (477 cases out of 500 cases investigated) occur in families where well water and not hydrant water is used for drinking purposes justifies the condemnation of such well waters, even where the amount of organic matter in the water is very small.— [Rose Polytechnic Institute, Dec. 1891.
0/
Laboratory and field work on the phosphate of alumina. By H. A. HrsTON.
Recent methods for the determination of phosphoric aciu. By H. A. HrsTON.
The digestibility of the pentose carp.ohydrates. By W. E. Stone.
The action of phenyl-hydrazin on rrRFUROi.. By W. E, Stone.
A graphical solution for equations of hiCtHer de(.ree. for both real
AND IMAGINAItY ROOTS. By A. S. HaTHAWAY.
•1. Preliminary on imaginary numbers.
The usual idea of imaginary numbers, as presented in our text books of algebra, is that they are symbols introduced for the sake of making the laws of algebra formally complete. It is implied in the name given to these numbers that they have no actual meaning. This is a mistake. The failure to mean anything in ordinary cases is not the fault of the numbers, but results from the nature of the concrete quantities with which they are generally used. Like difficulties are experienced with real numbers under similar circumstances. Let us go briefly over the list of numbers and em- phasize this point.
First, the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, that denote repetitions of a concrete quan- tity. If the quantity be incapable of the indicated repetition the result is imaginary. Thus: Three spaces of four dimensions. This may be com- prehensible to a different order of beings, but not to us.
Second, the numbers I, };, \, that denote partitions of a concrete quan- tity. Nevertheless, a space of I a dimension, a school of 1 a student, are impossibilities.
Third, the number — 1, This number must be used with quantities of two kinds such that two of equal magnitude and different kinds give, when
*NOTE.— This preliminary ou the graphic representation of imaginary numbers was not presented to the Academy. It is a simple and direct presentation of the subject without the use of analytical geometry, and on that account may be interesting to mathematicians; at the -^ame time, it places the whole article upon an elementary basis, and makes it available to a larger circle of readers.
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combined, zero result; e. g., assets and liabilities. In this case — 1 reverses quality without altering magnitude, so that 1 -p ( — 1 ) = 0. But what is a farm of — 80 acres? Imagine a farm that put with an SO acre farm gives no land at all.
Fourth, the incommensurable numbers, e. g.. the ratio of a diagonal to a side of a square. These require continuous quantitj'^, and their use with quantity whose partitions are limited is impossible. What is a space of |, '7 dimensions, a country with ^ '7 presidents, a man with i 7 dollars in his pockets?
We recognize a number by what it can do with appropriate quantity to operate upon, not by what it can not do with inappropriate quantity. The interpretation of imaginary number requires quantity that has magnitude and different qualities. These quantities, whether geometrical or physical, may be represented by certain geometrical quantities called by Clifford steps.
The step from a position A in space to another position B has length and direction. Two steps are equal that have the same length, and the same direction ; i. e., the opposite sides of a parallelogram taken in the same di- rection are equal steps. The sum of any number of successive steps in various directions is the step from the first point of departure to the last point reached ; e. g., A B + B C + C D = A D. In particular the sum of two successive steps along the sides of a parallelogram is equal to the step along the diagonal. As the remaining sides in the parallelogram form equal steps added in reverse order, we learn that the order of successive steps in a sum may be changed without altering the sum.
Positive numbers operating on steps change lengths but not directions ; — 1 reverses direction without altering length ; e. g., — 1 A B = B A. If x be any real number we see by similar triangles that x ( A B + B C) = x A B J-xBC.
A valuable analysis may be developed by the use of steps and real num- bers only. From its simplicity, and its value in physical applications, it ought to displace ordinary analytical geometry, in technical schools at least. The main difticulty is the lack of a suitable text book.
Let us confine ourselves, now, to steps in the plane of the paper, and consider the nature of the number that multiplying 0 A produces O B. It must alter the length of O A into the length of O B ; this is the tensor fac- tor, an ordinary positive number. It must turn O A thus lengthened into OB; this is the versor factor; the angle of this turn, reckoned as positive
50
when it is counter clockwise, is the angle of the number. Thus, let (2, oO°) denote a number that doubles length and turns 30° counter clockwise. Its tensor is 2, its vei'sor is (1, 30°), and its angle is 30°.
After multiplying a step by (2, oO°) multiply the result by (:>, 20°). Plainly the final step is (6, 50°) times the first step. This example of a product enables us to see at once that :
The tensor of a product equals the product of the tensors of the factors ; and the angle of a product equals the sum of the angles of the factors. Hence the factors may be combined in any order without altering their product.
The definition of a sum of two numbers p and q is that (p + q) O B=: p O B - q 0 B. ■• Replacing O B by r O A we have that (p — q) r = p r + q r; and since the factors of a product have been shown to be interchangeable, therefore r(p-i-q) = {p — q)r=rp + rq.
We thus find that these versi-tensors follow the ordinary laws of alge- braic combination. To identify them with imaginaries, notice that (1, 90°)- = (1, 180°) = — 1 = (1, —90°)-, These two square roots of —1 are nega- tives of each other, for —1 (1, —90°) = (1, 180°) (1, —90°) = (1, 90°). So — 1 has three cube roots, — 1 and (1, =b 60°); and so on.
It is convenient to represent versi-tensors by steps. Some step O A is taken to represent unity ; and then any other step represents its ratio to the unit step O A. Thus, if 0 B, O B^ are steps of the same length as 0 A, and make angles of 60° and — ()0° respectively with O A, they represent the imaginary cube roots of — 1. AVe may use geometry to put these roots in the standard form x y i, where x and y are real numbers and i = (1 , 90°). Let BBi meet O A in C; then OC represents, or say =, i, and CB= i l/7 i = — C Bi ; and from O B = O C ^ C B, O B^ = 0 C + C B^ we have (1, ± 60°) = i ± ^, 7 i.
This example just given makes it plain that any imaginary number may be put in the form x ^ y i, in one and only one way ; and from the right triangle involved, we also see that the tensor of x + y i is v x- + y-, the so-called modulus in imaginaries. It is easy to show by geometry how it is that every equation with real or imaginary co-efficients has at least one root, and therefore just as many roots as its degree and no more, or even to show the whole directly. ♦ In fact, all the fundamental properties of imag-
"To see that this does detiiie the sum, try it for the case of p = {2, 30 ), q= (2, 150 ), which gives p -r q= (2. 90' i. Also compare with the verification that 2-j-i= 5.
(50
iuaries may be made visible realities rather than symbolic results based upon certain assumptions.
When dealing with steps not limited to the plane of the paper, then ( O A, n°) may be taken as the symbol of a number that turns any step that is perpendicular to O A, n° round'O A as axis, counter clockwise to an ob- server at A, and lengthens in the ratio of the length of O A to the unit length. This is a quaternion. Quaternions whose angles are o° or 1S0° are ordinary positive and negative numbers, and are called scalars. Qua- ternions whose angles are 90° are called vectors. The square of a vector is a negative scalar. The ordinary rules of algebra hold except that factors are not interchangeable without altering the product. A quaternion, also, cannot multiply a step that is not perpendicular to its axis. It can be geo- metrically represented only by two steps. A vector (O A, 90°) or briefly (O A) may be represented by the step ( ) A. The value of this representa- tion is expressed by the equations :
(OB)4-(OA)=-(OB-rOA)
(OB) : ( 0 A ) - OB : O A. The calculus of quaternions is superior for all purposes of investigation to analytical geometry, and as its results can be immediately turned into ana- lytical formulas, it is likely to be very much used and developed in the future. It is especially valuable in mathematical physics. An account of the -system by Sir Wm. Rowan Hamilton, the inventor, was first presented to the Royal Irish Academy in 1843. The first book upon the subject, " Hamilton's Lectures," appeared in 185o.
II.
Let a x^ r b x^ + c x + d = o be an equation with general imaginary co-efficients. Divide this by x — r: the quotient is a x- + (a r -f b) x + (a r- -r b r + c) and the remainder is a r ' -j- b r- -[- c r + d. The co-effi- cients of the quotient, and final remainder are best found by synthetic di- vision, which shows the general method of forming each co-efficient by multiplying the last by r and adding the next coefficient of the original equation. The process is identical with the reduction of the compound number (a, b, c, d) whose radix is r. The test of a root is that the remain- der should be zero. The steps that represent these numbers may be constructed as follows : Take in the plane of the paper steps O A, A B, B C, C D, representing the numbers a, b, c, d. Take any point A', and let A' k: 0 A be the r we
Gl
are to try in the equation for x. To find the result of the trial, construct the triangle A^ B' B similar to O A' A, and then the triangle B' C^ C, also similar to O A' A. We have O A = a, A' A = a r, and hence A' B = A^ A + AB = ar+b; also by similar triangles, B^ B = r A^ B --= a r- -{- b r, and hence B^ C = B^ B + B C = a r- + b r + c. Again by similar triangles, C^ C = r (a r2 + b r + c) = a r3 ^ b r^ + c r and hence C D = C C + C D = a r^ + b r^ + c r + d, the remainder sought ; moreover, the co-eflacients of the quotient are represented by O A, A/ B, B^ C. The problem is to so choose the first point A' that the last vertex C of the series of similar tri- angles O A' A, A^ B' B, B' C C, shall coincide with D : then A' A : O A is a root of the given equation. With the ability to construct a series of sim- ilar triangles with ease, a position for A^ may be approximated to without much difficulty. Observe that O A^, A^ B^, W C^ are equi-mulliples of O A A' B, B^ C. This follows from the similar triangles 0 A' A, A^ B^ B, B' C C, which give O A^ : O A = A' B' : A^ B = B^ C : B' C both as to tensor and angle parts. Hence the circuit O A^ B' C represents the quo- tient on the new scale in which 0 A/ instead of O A represents the first co-eflBcient a.
If the co-eflScients of the given equation are all real numbers and only the real roots are sought, the method fails, since A^ must be taken on 0 A produced giving no triangle 0 A' A. In such a case, put x = -^— where m is a given versor, say (1, 60°), or (1, 90°); the equation becomes ;
a z^ + m b z- + m- c z + m^ d ^ o. The figure O, A, B, C, D that represents the co-efficients of this equation will have equal angles at A, B, C, viz.: the supplement of the angle of m (since a, b, c, d are real numbers, their angles are O or 180°). We are to seek for roots of this equation whose angles are, angle of m or angle of m— 180°. (Since z = mx, therefore angle z = angle m ^ angle x.) Thus A' must be taken on A B produced ; and since the angles at A, B, C, are equal, it follows that the similar triangles required will have their vertices B', C^ on B C, C D, produced, so that the construction of these triangles is simplified, e. g., to find B^ draw from A^ a line making with O A^ an angle equal to the angle A; that line meets B C in B'. The broken line O A^B' C has its angles A^, B^ equal to the angles A, B, and its vertices A', B', C in the sides A B, B C, C D; trials of this construction must be made until C co-incides with D, when A^ A : m O A is the real root of the equation in x.
Taking m=(l, 90°), this is Lill's construction for the real roots of an equation with real co-eflScients. Lill has devised an instrument for facili-
62
tating his construction, which is described as follows (Cremona Graph. Statics (Beare), p. "ti):
"The apparatus consists of a perfectly plane circular disc, which may be made of wood ; upon it is pasted a piece of paper ruled in squares. In the center of the disc, which should remain fixed, stands a pin, around which as a spindle another disc of ground glass of equal diameter can turn. Since the glass is transparent, we can with the help of the ruled paper under- neath, immediately draw upon it the circuit corresponding to the given equation. If we now turn the glass plate, the ruled paper assists the eye in finding the circuit which determines a root. A division upon the cir- cumference of the ruled disc enables us by means of the deviation of the first side of the first circuit from the first side of the second, to immediately determine the magnitude of the root. For this purpose the first side of the circuit corresponding to the equation must be directed to the zero point of the graduation."
Linkages might be found to perform mechanically what must be done by successive approximations in the method above, viz.: to bring the last vertex C/ into co-incidence with D. Kempe has given some linkages for a diflTerent construction. [See Messenger of Mathematics, Vol. 4, 1875, p. 124.]
III.
The following constructions are given as illustrations:
(a.) Roots of 2x'- + 4x -^ 1 = o. [Fig. i.]
As the co-eflBcients are all real it is preferable, and for real roots neces- sary, to transform the equation by putting x = -^, m = (1, 90°). The equation becomes 2 zH -^ m z + m^ -= O, and 0 A = 2, A B = 4 m, B C == m3 = _ 1. If A' A : () A is a root of this equation then, dividing by m, we find A/ A : m O A «s a root of the original equation. If this is real A' must lie on A B, produced if necessary. Ilemember that A^ is such that O A' A, A^ C B are similar triangles and we see that the angle O A^ C is a right angle when A' lies on A B. Hence the circle on O C as diameter cuts A B in'the sought points A', A'^. From the figure the roots A' A : m O A, A'^ A : m O A are approximately — . 3 and —1.7.
(b.) Rootsof 2x2 + 2x + 4 = 0. [Fig. ii.]
Here 0A = 2, AB = 2m, BC = 4m2 ... —4. The circle on O C as di- ameter does not cut A B and the roots are imaginary. Since 0 A^ A, A'' C B are similar, therefore A' is equally distant from A and B, and that distance is mean proportional between O A and C B. A circle with this mean pro- portional as radius and center at A or B will therefore cut the perpendicu- lar erected at the middle point (M) of A B in the sought points A', A'\ The circle with center at M and cutting the circle on 0 C as diameter at
()8
right angles also passes through these points. Conceiving the step m. O A drawn from A' we see that M A and A' M, kf^ M are the real and imagi- nary components of the roots. The roots given by k/ and K'^ are by the figure — 5 — 1.3m and — } -f- 1.3m.
(c.) Real root of 2 x^ + 4 x- -f 8 -f 4 = o.
We have O A = 2, AC = 4m, BC = 8m2= —8, CD = 4m3 = — 4m. The circuit O A' W D was drawn by aid of transparent paper turned round a pin with cross section paper underneath, after the manner of Lill's wooden and ground glass discs. The root, A' A : m O A = tan k.' O A, may be read ofT from the cross section paper to several decimal places. It is here — .64....
O A^ B^ D is the circuit for the quadratic equation that gives the remain- ing pair of roots of the cubic. The circle on 0 D as diameter will not cut A^ B' so that these roots are imaginary.
On .soj[e theorems of ixtec;katioxs in qcatekxioxs. By A. S. Hatha- way.
There are certain identities among volume, surface and line integrals of a quaternion function q=/(h) that include as special cases the well known theorems of Green and Stokes, that are so often employed in mathematical physics. These indentities were first demonstrated by Prof. Tait by the aid of the physical principles usually employed in forming the so-called "Equa- tion of Continuity." [See Tait's Quatermous, third ed., ch. XII J.]
If dh dih,d2h be non-coplanar differentials of the vector h, the theorems may be written :
(1) — /fJSdhdihd2h.~q=/J V dhdjh.q
(The surface integral extends over the boundary of the volume integral and Vdhdih is an outward facing element of the surface.)
(2) /fV (Vdhdih.~).q=/dhq
(The line integral extends over the boundary of the surface integral in the positive direction as given by the vector areas V dhdjh.) These theorems are analogous to the elementary theorem,
(3) /dq=qB — qj or in quaternion notation,
•^ A
— /Sdh'v.q=q
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It has not been noticed, so far as I am aware that these identities are equivalent to simpler identities pertaining to the operator V, as follows :
(1)' Sdhdihd2h.V=Vdihd2hSdhV+Vd2hdhSdih\7+VdhdihSd2hV
(2/ V(Vdhdih.V)=dhSdih^— dihSdhV
In fact (1) and (2) become these (into q) when applied to the elements of volume and surface just as (3) becomes SdhV=di (into q) when applied to the element of length;
To identify (1) and (1)^, let h be the vector of the mean point of the par- allelopiped whose edges are dhjdih.djh. The outward vector areas "of the two faces parallel to djh.dah are — VdihdahjVdjhdoh, and the correspond- ing values of q are q+JSdh.V-q, q— iSdhV-q; so that sum of the vector areas into q is — VdihdohSdhV-q- Similarly for the other faces.
So to identify (2) and (2)', the line elements bounding the parallelogram dh,dih are dh,dih, — dh, — djh, and the corresponding values of q are q+^Sdih^.q, q+oSdh^y.q, q — iSd,h\7.q, q— ^Sdh^Z-qandthe sum dhq is dhSd.hy.q— dihSdhy.q.
To obtain (1) irom (1)^ divide the given volume into infinitesimal parallel- epipeds by any three systems of surfaces, one of which includes the bound- ary of the volume. In summing the terms (1)^ the introduced interior sur- faces between adjacent elements of volume are gone over twice with the vector areas oppositely directed. These surfaces balance one another, therefore, and may be dropped from the summation, leaving the volume integral equal to the surface integral over the boundary of the volume integral.
We see also that if any discontinuity in q or its derivatives exists within the given volume that the proper way to overcome this is to surround the discontinuity by surfaces and so exclude the discontinuity. Usually this alterg only the surface over which the surface integral extends without aflFecting the volume integral.
Similarly (2) is obtained from summation of (2)^ and, as every student of integral calculus is aware, (3) is obtained from dq in a similar manner.
The sectioxs ok the anchor king. By W. Y. Brown.
65
Note on the early history of the potential functions. By A. S. Hath- away.
This is to call attention to an injustice that has been done by Todhunter in his "History of the Theory of Attractions" in assigning to Laplace in- stead of Lagrange the honor of the introduction of the potential function into dynamics. This injustice has been perpetuated by various encyclope- dias, notably the Encyclopedia Britannica, and by leading text books, such as Thompson and Tait's Natural Philosophy, and Maxwell's Electricity and Magnetism. In an article in Vol. 1 No. 3 of the Bulletin of the New York Mathematical Society (Dec. 1891) I have shown conclusively that Lagrange anticipated Laplace by at least ten years in investigations on the potential. Laplace's first announcement is fixed by Todhunter as between 1783 and 1785, and this was merely through the paper of another, Legendre. La- grange on the other hand, wrote distinctly upon that subject in 1773, 1777 and 1780 ; and in the last paper the notation is the same as that used by La- place three or four years later. There is also evidence that Lagrange had begun to develop the idea of the potential as early as 17G3, in connection with his celebrated generalized equations of motion.
Some geometrical propositions. By C. A. Waldo.
Notes on numerical radices. By C. A. Waldo.
Some suggested changes in notation. By R. L. Green.
An adjustment for the control magnet on a mirror galvanometer. By J. P. Naylor.
A combined Wheatstone's bridge and potentiometer. Bv J. p. Naylok.
Histeresis curves for mitis and other cast iron. By J. E. MoouEandE.
M. TiNGLEY. 5
Heating op a diki^ectiuc in a condenser — I'reliminary note. By Albeki P. Carman.
PrELIMINAHY notes on the (4E0L0GY OF DeAUHORN county. By A. .1. BlONEY.
The geological formations in Dearborn county are the lower Silurian which is found in almost every part of the county, the upper silurian occu- pying only a small area in the northwest part of the county and the glacial deposit of the post-tertiary times. Blue limestone is the characteristic rock. The rock is abundantly supplied with fossils, much of it being composed almost entirely of brachiopods, corals and other closely related fossils. On this account they are of little value for building purposes, the chief use be- ing for foundation stones. Some of the hardest will weather very percep- tibly in only a few years. Along the railroad at Moore's Hill, the rocks are so easily disintegrated that the cliflFs appear more like immense shell banks than true rocks.
In the northern part of the county, near the upper silurian outcrop, the rock is much harder and is quarried in considerable quantities, and is re- garded as a very fine quality of stone. It, however, is not equal to that which is found in Ripley and Decatur counties. Where there is no drift the soil is marly — that is, composed of lime, clay, sand, etc. In the greater part of the county and especially in the western section there is much clay ; on the fiats this is very tenacious. In the eastern part of the county along the Ohio drift deposits are very prominent. There is some drift at New- town, near Lawrenceburgh, but the most important deposits are just outside the county, in Ohio county, and where it is about fifty feet thick and three miles below Aurora on the Kentucky side, above and below Wolper creek. About five miles further to the south in Boone county, Ky., still more drift is to be found. This last deposit is about on a level with the highest part of the cliff, that is, 1,000 feet. The drift at the mouth of Wolper creek, called Split-rock, is an immense mass of conglomerate fully 100 feet thick and nearly 400 feet lower than that five miles to the south. There is one perpendicular clifi" that measures 7.'^ feet high, and above this there is a rise of about 20 feet more, and how deep it extends no one has investigated. About one- fourth mile to the south, on the opposite side of a small creek, is still more deposit and one cliff is even higher than the one just described.
07
In the lower part of this drift, which is finer than the upper drift, gold has been found, more particularly, however, on the Indiana side.
The fossil remains in the county are rich, and a fuller report may be given at some future time. Only a few can receive our attention in this paper. Near Aurora and Lawrenceburgh numerous bones of the mastodon and mammoth have been found. The bones of a sloth and the skull of a black bear have also been found, and a few other mammals. Brachiopods, crin- oids, trilobites, mollusks, bryozoa, corals, etc., are found in great abundance. The trilobites are not so numerous as they used to be, for most of the speci- mens have been collected — that is, the surface specimens. While exploring a mound four miles north of Moore's Hill several large specimens of the coral, tetradium fibratum were found. One of them required four men to place it in the wagon. One little ravine seemed to be literally filled with it. Prof. Gorby pronounced these the finest specimens of the kind in the state. They are now in the museum at Moore's Hill College.
The cystidiaxs of Jefferson couxtv, Ind. — By Geo. C. Hubbard. These fossils form an order of the crinoids, and are most abundant in the Niagara group. About thirty species, up to this time, have been found in Jefferson county, which proves it to be the richest locality in this respect in North America, if not in the world. Fifteen new species will be described and figured in the 17th report of the Geological Survey of Indiana, most of which, if not all, were collected by Mr. John Hammel. Those found be- long to the genera holocystites, caryocrinus and allocystites. These fossils are uniformly found in shale or soft limestone, near the bottom of the Ni- agara group. Near Madison few have been found and these are in poor condition; but along Big creek, in the northern part of the county, they are more numerous and are well preserved. On two or three occasions I had the pleasure of accompanying Mr. Hammel to Big creek. Numerous other fossils were found, but few cystidians. If an experienced collector finds two or three good specimens in a day's search he may consider him- self fortunate. A few are found in the debris at the base of the low cliffs or in the bed of the creek ; more are obtained, however, by moving along on hands and knees and closely examining the various strata known to con- tain them, as well as the bottom of the projecting rocks above, for they are often found adhering to the lower surface of certain strata.
68 Hudson rivek fossils of Jefferson cointv, Indiana. By Geo. C. Huh-
BABD.
In the Geological Report of Indiana for 1874, there appeared a list of Hudson River fossils prepared by Dr. W. J. S, Cornett, containing the names of seventy-six species and varieties. They were classified as ^jfon- tx, encrinites, parasitic corals, unhrtlvcs, orthis and trilobites. Among the "or- this" were modiolopsis modiolaris, a lamellibranch, and streptelasma cor- niculum, a cup coral. Tetradium fibratum, a columnar coral, was placed under "univalves." Young and old of the same species were sometimes classed as two species. Strophomena nutans, which has never been found in Indiana, was included in the list. These and similar errors, together with the incompleteness of the list, call for a second attempt.
The species included in this second list have been collected chiefly by myself in the vicinity of Madison. Most of the crinoids, however, were named from Mr. Jno. Hammel's extensive collection. The list, which is too long for an abstract, contains:
Plantse 8 species.
Porifera 6 "
Anthozoa 25 "
Crinoidea 28
Stellerida 0 "
Bryozoa 14 "
Brachiopoda 32 "
Pteropoda 3
Gasteropoda 20 "
Cephalopoda 18 "
Lamellibranchiata 26 "
Annelida • 4 "
Crustacea 8 "
Total 198
Among these some ten or twelve are believed to be undescribed species.
The upper limit op the lower Silurian at Madison, Ind. — By George C. Hubbard. The upper strata of the bluffs along the Ohio river belong to the Niagara group, and the lower to the Hudson river or Cincinnati group ; but the exact line of demarcation between them has long been an unsettled ques- tion. The importance of this parting is recognized when we remember
69
that it exists wherever the Silurian rocks are exposed, and that here in an altitude of more than 20,000 feet of the earth's crust, representing a period of untold ages, the greatest break in animal life occurred ; but one-fourth of the genera represented in the lower silurian being found in the upper Silurian, while the species are almost entirely new.
In Ripley county, along Graham creek, this parting is easily determined by means of the abundant and well preserved fossils, but at ]\Iadison this is not the case. Fossils are easily found from the level of the river to a height of 300 feet, where the favistella stillata bed outcrops. Above this for sev- enty-five feet the strata are nearly non- fossiliferous. At three hundred seventy-five feet above the Ohio the "cliff rock" outcrops, which contains characteristic Niagara fossils.
In 1859 Prof. Richard Owen, after a hasty examination, stated the favis- tella reef to be the limit. A few years later Prof. Eaton discovered tetra- dium fibratum, a Hudson river fossil, six feet higher. Subsequently, Dr. W. J. S. Cornett claimed that he had discovered a 10 i,nch stratum about fifty feet above the favistella reef containing orthis occidentalis and other Hud- son river fossils, and announced this stratum as the last of the lower Si- lurian.
In 1889 I commenced collecting fossils, being unacquainted with what has been stated just above. Occasionally at the head of ravines I found fossils in fallen rocks which were undescribed in any of my books on pa- laeontology. Some were sent to S. A. Miller, of Cincinnati, who returned them, saying they were new species. This made me eager to ascertain the position from which the rock bearing them came. Mr. John Hammel and I commenced an investigation and discovered that it is situated near the summit of the precipices forming the various falls west of Madieon. Imme- diately above we found a hard, durable salmon-colored stone which, on ac- count of its greater resistance to decomposition, shielded and concealed the stratum beneath. The upper stratum was found to contain certain Niagara fossils, and later investigation has shown that there is an abrupt palfeon- tological break between the two strata, corresponding to the cycles of time when the lower silurian rocks were elevated above the surface of the ocean and subjected to the disintegrating action of the elements.
By comparing the upper stratum, according to our determination, with that selected by Dr. Cornett at the stone quarry near his residence, they were found to be identical. Hence, to this gentleman belongs the honor of the discovery, our labors simply confirming his conclusion.
7()
The only facts which militate against the validity of the limit assigned are that a survey of the two strata up and down the river for several miles shows them to be conformable ; but as stated above, in Ripley county the fifty feet of non-fossiliferous rock is absent, proving non-conformability, and that the fossils, with few exceptions, are unlike others found in the Hudson river group.
The Kankakke kiveh and pure water for Northwestern Indiana axd Chicago — By J. L. Campbell.
The Kankakee river is the unsolved engineering problem of Indiana.
How to secure the proper drainage of the vast basin known as the Kan- kakee marshes is a question which has not had a practical answer— chiefly on account of the expense necessary to carry out any of the proposed plans. A new interest in this question may be developed in connection with the problem of an adequate supply of pure water for the new cities in north- western Indiana and of Chicago, beyond our borders.
The fact exists, although vigorously denied by citizens of Chicago, that pure water has not been obtained by the tunnel system into Lake Michigan, and it is more than probable that further extension of the system will fail to furnish pure water, and after the most costly experiments or repeated disappointments the city will seek its water supply from other sources.
The effort to keep the lake water pure by artificial drainage of the city into the Illinois river may be partially successful — but even this is doubt- ful— and at best changes will be enormously expensive, — literally an up-hill business.
It will not be denied that a vast territory around Chicago cannot be in- cluded in the artificial drainage system, and this territory will continue to be drained into Lake Michigan.
The mouth of the tunnel, whether located two or ten miles from the shore, is the source of an artificial stream toward which currents must tend from all directions. Into these currents the impure drainage of the city will be carried, and the water supply will be contaminated.
The extension of the tunnels doubtless will furnish less impure water, but certainly not the pure supply necessary for the health of a great city.
The practical (luestions connected with the question of the water supply of a great city are : —
71
(1) Purity of water.
(2) Adequacy of supply.
(3) Elevation.
(4) Cost of construction.
The purpose of this paper is to show that the Kankakee river furnishes a satisfactory answer to these questions.
The river takes its rise in the marsh land near South Bend, in St. Joseph county, Indiana, at an elevation of seven hundred and twenty feet above sea level, and by an extremely crooked course through Indiana, enters Illi- nois a few miles east of Momence. The length of the river in Indiana is nearly two hundred and fifty miles.
According to a survey made by the author of this paper for the State of Indiana in 1882 this channel could be reduced for better drainage to less than one hundred miles.
The chief tributary of the Kankakee is Yellow river, which rises in the eastern part of Marshall county.
The country adjacent to the river is a broad plain, varying in width from one to twenty miles, along the borders of which are sand ridges which give to the region the designation of the Kankakee ^'alley, and which have pro- duced the erroneous impression that the marsh is a low irreclaimable swamp, whereas the fact is that it is an elevated plateau with a mean level of ninety feet above Lake Michigan and six hundred and seventy feet above the ocean.
The plateau has a slope westward of one foot per mile.
The water of the Kankakee is remarkably pure and clear, and is regarded by all who have used it as exceptionally healthful.
Iron is found in solution, which doubtless adds value to the water for general purposes.
The bed of the Kankakee and of its tributaries generally is fine sand and gravel, and the underlying strata throughout the valley are fine sand in- creasing to coarse gravel. Clay beds are rare and there is no stone along the stream throughout Indiana. The overlying loam varies in thickness from a few inches to several feet, and the surface generally is an unre- claimed marsh in which coarse grass, wild rice and weeds grow in the great- est luxuriance.
The crookedness of the stream is readily explained by the instability of the sandy strata through which it flows — the twelve inches of surface slope being reduced to four inches, measured in the channel of the stream.
The sandy substratum makes the entire valley a vast filtering basin — a great lake filled with sand and gravel, whence issues the pure and limpid water of the Kankakee river.
This is a satisfactory answer to the first and most important question con- cerning a city water supply.
The second question is the adequacy of supply.
The most convenient point on the Kankakee for starting a pipe line to Chi- cago or any of the new cities in the northwestern part of Indiana is in township 33 north, range ('•> west, not far from the boundary line between Porter 'and Lake counties.
The drainage area of the basin above this point is about twelve hundred square miles, which is four times the area of the Croton basin whence is derived the water supply of New York.
The sluggish flow of the river, due to the fall of only four inches to the mile, substantially makes this basin of over a thousand square miles a re- servoir more than sufficient for the greatest demands, and satisfactorily an- swers the second general question concerning a city supply.
In answer to the third and fourth general questions, the state survey of 1882 shows that the eleva'ion of the initial point already designated as the proper beginning place for a pipe line is seventy-three (73) feet above lake Michigan, or sixty-nine feet above the Illinois Central depot on the lake front of Chicago, or fifty- one feet above the railway station at Toleston.
The distance from the initial point to Chicago is less than fifty miles and to Toleston twenty-five miles.
The sand ridge on the north side of the Kankakee has a probable altitude of fifty feet, and in the absence of a survey it cannot be stated whether it would be better to excavate through this ridge for the pipe line or to pump the water to the summit. If it is found feasible to excavate for the line a a flow of water by gravity alone can be secured from the Kankakee to the lake front in Chicago, with a fall of one foot per mile, into the receiving reservoir twenty-three feet above the level of the street. The first Croton aqueduct has a fall of forty-seven feet in thirty-eight miles.
If it is found more expedient to pump the water to the summit it is pos- sible that an open channel along the surface of the ridge could be con- structed so as to" reduce the closed pipe line to twenty- five miles and to de- liver the water in Chicago with a standpipe pressure of from fifty to seventy- five feet.
These questions cannot be satisfactorily answered until after a careful survey has been made.
The importance of this enterprise cannot easily be overestimated, and the cost of the work, even if it should reach millions, will be insignificant in comparison with the results to be obtained.
Explorations of Mt. Orizaba. By J. T. Scovell.
Variations in the dynamical conditions during the deposit of the kock BEDS at Richmond, Ind. By Joseph Moore.
The relation of the keokuk groups of Montgomery county with the typical locality. By C. S. Beachler.
Comments on the descriptions of species. By C. S. Beachler.
On a deposit of vertebrate fossils in Colorado. By Amos W. Butler.
Topographical evidence of a great and sudden diminution of the an- cient water supply of the Wabash river. Bv J. T. Campbell.
Source of supply to medial morains probably from the bottom of the
GLACIAL CHANNEL. Bv .J. T. CaMPBELL.
74
Notes o\ a Kansas species of buckeye. By W. A. Keli-ekman,
pjrotographing certain' natural objects without a camera. by w. a. Kellerman.
On the occurrence of certain western plants at Columbus, ()hio. By Aug. D, Selby.
[abstract].
It is my purpose in this paper to point out two features of the flora in the vicinity of Columbus, Ohio, which combine to present in it a represen- tation of western plants ; as a result of the one, we find in that locality the beginning of western species, and by the other are to note the compara- tively recent introduction of a good many far-western and southwestern plants, some of which appear there, perhaps, for the first time east of the Mississippi river.
In Central Ohio there is a marked blending of eastern and western spe- cies of plants ; east and southeast of Columbus but a short distance will bring one into the typical Appalachian flora, while to the westward the entire half of the state is underlain by the great limestone formations and with the outcrop of the corniferous limestone, the first to be met with traveling westward, plants of a well-marked western range begin to appear. This feature was referred to by Prof, J. S. Newberry* in 1859, He points out a peculiar facies due (in part) to the presence of a number of the prai- rie plants of the west here on the eastern limits of their range.
The following species may be cited as illustrating this fact, all occurring near Columbus :
Erysimum asperum, Trifolium stoloniferum, Cornus asperifolia.
Aster azureus, Aster Shortii, Helianthus doronicoides.
Camassia Fraseri, Bouteloua racemosa.
But it is to the presence of a number of distinctly western and south- western plants introduced by wholesale, as it were, that more particular at- tention is directed.
Columbus, in common with all railroad centers through which shipment
Ohio Agricultural Kcport, 1859, p. 210.
lO
of products from the west regularly occurs, is in a position to receive the plants thus dropped. Artemisia biennis and Verbena stricta have been received by this means ; the latter is especially abundant around the rail- road intersections. In addition to this opportunity, an exceptional one, as it would appear, is presented by the permanent quarters of a circus and menagerie (Sells Brothers').
On the grounds about these winter quarters near Columbus, about twenty species of plants have been introduced and more than half of them have not appeared elsewhere in the vicinity. The range and distribution of the plants found is such as to increase the interest attaching to their ap- pearance. The seeds were evidently brought upon the return at the close of the season, carried in cars, cages, wagons, or preserved in the intestines of animals. The litter of cars and cages seems to the writer the most likely vehicle for the seeds of the larger number of plants found.
Below are the species found on the circus grounds and appearing by .some agency connected therewith ; those introduced independently at other points in the county are marked with an asterisk ; accompanying certain ones the range of the species is copied from the Manual or Synop- tical Flora :
Callirrhoe involucrata, Gray. Minnesota to Texas.
Erodium cicutarium, L'Her.
Clarkia pulchella, Pursh. Western Montana and westward.
Amphiachyris dracunculoides, Nutt. Plains, Kansas and southward.
Aster pauciflorus, Nutt. Kansas and west (?).
Artemisia annua L.
Dysodia chrysanthemoides. Lag.®
Gutierrezia Texana, Torr & Gray. Sterile plains throughout Texas.
Helenium microcephalum, DC. Southern Texas and adjacent Mexico.
Helenium nudiflorum, Nutt.
Helenium tenuifolium, Nutt. West of Mississippi river.
Parthenium Hysterophorus, L. Throughout Eastern and Central Texas, also east of Mississippi river.
Solanum rostratum, Dunal. Plains of Nebraska to Texas, spreading east- ward.
Verbena angustifolia, Michx.
Monarda citriodora, Cerv. Nebraska to Texas.
Plantago Patagonica, Jacq., var aristata, Gray.*
Amarantus spinosus, L.
Ohenopodium ambrosioides, L. var. anthelminticum, Gray.
Croton capitatus, Michx.
Avena fatua, L.
Of those here much beyond their assigned limits, three show decidedly weedy tendencies. They are Solamum rostratum, Dysodia chrysanihem- oides and Parthenium Hysterophorus. The two last named promise to become permanent additions to our flora, undesirable though they may be.
The circus is at present in Australia and we shall watch with interest to secure anything that may be brought from there.
Biological surveys. By Johx M. Coulter.
Some stran(;e developments of stomata upon Carya alka caused by Phylloxera. By D. A. Owen.
[abstractJ.
Upon the upper side of the leaf of Carya alba are found some hemispher- ical and conical galls produced by the little insect Phylloxera. These galls are the receptacles for the eggs, or nest of these insects.
The stomata in leaves uninjured are all found upon the lower surface. But in those containing galls there are seldom any stomata found in the epidermis just beneath the gall. The upper side is entirely free from sto- mata with the exception of the gall itself. In no case was any gall exam- ined in which stomata were not found upon the upper surface. And with but one or two exceptions no stomata were found upon the under surface just beneath the gall.
Surrounding and within the opening of the gall upon the under side of the leaf minute hairs were found, all extending outward as if to guard the opening against the entrance of an enemy.
There seems, from the above, to be an intimate relation existing here be- tween the plant and animal.
Preliminary paper ox the flora of Henry' county, Ind. By T. B. Red- ding and Mrs. Rosa REoniNG Mikels.
A NEW COMPOUND MICROTOME. By GeO. C. HuBBARD.
Wishing to prepare some slides exhibiting the structure of various ani- mal tissues and organs, but having no microtome, I made one of wood chiefly, at a cost of thirty cents and two or three days' labor.
The principle of the machine is to prepare sections by quickly forcing the tissue, supported on a carrier attached to the circumference of a 12-inch wheel, across the edge of a razor, which is brought automatically a slight distance nearer the tissue at each rotation of the wheel.
The base of the machine is a heavy board about thirteen inches long by eight in width. At the middle of each side inflexible standards are erected and adjustable bearings provided, the centre of the opening in each being six and one half inches above the board. In these bearings rests the axis of the 12-inch wheel, which is turned by means of a crank.
The support for the tissue consists of a round brass disc of any conve- nient size attached at its centre to one end of a short cylindrical rod. This rod fits into a corresponding orifice extending through the middle of a half- cleft sphere, which fits loosely in a corresponding socket in the circumfer- ence of the wheel. One side (the one opposite to the automatic feeder) of this socket is made adjustable by removing a round bit of wood and in- serting in its stead a concave disc, which is attached to the short end of a straight lever extending down the side of the wheel to near the axis. A screw passing loosely through the lever about an inch from the center of the disc into the wheel serves as a fulcrum. Let this lever be called A. The long arm of A is moved by means of a circular wedge turning upon the round end of the wheel's axis. The thick part of the wedge is allowed to project four or five inches beyond the line of the circumference of the circle, and provided with a knob, thus forming a second lever, B, to which the power is applied. Instead of B and the wedge, a thumb-screw may be screwed through the long end of A, its end turning against the side of the wheel.
When the tissue has been fastened to the brass disc in the usual way, its round support is thrust into the opening of the ball. The carrier is turned and bent in any direction and pushed out or in until tne tissue is in the right position with regard to the razor. A slight force exerted on the knob of B moves B forward thus causing a thicker part of the circular wedge to pass between the wheel and the long arm of A, which forces the concave disc at the other arm against the half-cleft ball, thus causing it to grip firm- ly the tissue support. If a thumb-screw be used, it must be turned three or four times to produce the same eflect.
78
At one end of the board forming the base of the machine is fastened, by means of two hinges, a perpendicular piece of wood six and one-half inches long, ciit so that there are three arms above. Each of two of these has an opening at its upper extremity suitable for receiving the razor, and is pro- vided with a set-screw for clamping the razor.
To the third arm is attached a nut in which work the threads of a bolt, which extends horizontally to near the axis. The head of the bolt is at- tached to the centre of a wheel some four or five inches in diameter. The bolt now forms the axis of this wheel and must be supported at the wheel by an unyielding bearing. Turning this wheel once in the right direction pulls the razor forward a distance equal to that between the threads, which we shall suppose to be one-sixteenth of an inch.
On the face farthest from the razor of the small wheel, about twenty round brads are inserted near the circumference at equal distances apart, and all the same distance fimn the centre of the bolt. If the wheel be rotated the distance between two brads, the razor is drawn forward one three hundred and twentieth of an inch.
A small rectangle of tin or brass about three-fourths of an inch long is bent at right angles, and one edge is cut to form a slightly concave set of twelve vertical teeth of equal size, to turn the 4-inch wheel by pushing against the brads. If ten of the teeth are used, one tooth will move the razor forward one thirty-two hundredth of an inch.
This ratchet is now fastened to the side of a long horizontal lever, which is secured at one end to an upright support. The other arm rests upon an eccentric on the square end of the axis of the 12-inch wheel. Turning this wheel causes an up-and-down motion of the ratchet. The eccentric has a rectangular opening so that it may be slipped upon the axis and made more or less eccentric. It is held in any desired position by a set-screw. A peg, or better a screw with the head removed, projects from the under side of the lever just mentioned into a groove made in the circumference of the eccentric. This groove must be so arranged, that when the ratchet is rising, a tooth catches under a brad ; but when it ceases to rise, a short oblique portion of the groove moves the tooth from under the brad. The groove now resumes its straight course so as to prevent the next tooth above from coming in contact with the brad as the ratchet descends. An- other short oblique portion of the groove brings this tooth under the brad. As one brad escapes from the top of the ratchet, another enters at the bottom.
75)
To prevent any lost motion, and to push back the razor support when the 4-inch wheel is turned backward, a strong spiral spring may be placed on the bolt so as to extend from the bearing to the nut.
With the above described arrangement of parts, sections can be cut one thirty-two hundredth of an inch thick. By shifting the eccentric so that alternate teeth work, the sections are of double the thickness, etc. But little eccentricity is needed, about one-sixteenth of an inch being sufficient when each tooth of the ratchet is employed.
On the organogeny of Composit^e. By G. W. 3Iartin.
On the development of the akchegonium and apical growth in the
STEM OF TsUGA CANADENSIS AND PiNUS SYLVESTRIS. By D. M. MOT- TIER.
[abstract.]
This work consisted in a study of the development of the archegonium and the meristems of the stem. The results obtained in reference to the archegonium differ from those of Strasburger in that the neck of that organ in Tsuga consisted of two cells in as many cases as where one only was found, and very rarely three. In Pinus the neck of the archegonium was found to be made of two layers of cells, four in each layer, lying one above the other, instead of one layer.
As regards the growth of the stem it is argued that we can not say with certainty that growth proceeds from a single initial cell, as claimed by Du- liot for the Gymnosperms.
Preliminary notes on the genus Hoffmanseggia. By E. ]M. Fisher.
Development of the sporangium and apical growth of stem of Botrych-
lUM ViRGINIANUM. By C. L. HOLTZMAN.
80 .
The flora of Mt. Orizaba. By Henry E. Seaton.
As botanist of the J. T. Scovell expedition during July and August, 1891, collections were made by the writer on Mt. Orizaba through a range of 3,000 to 14,000 feet.
The first collections of importance on the mountain were made by Fred- eriS; Liebmann in 1811. Others who have collected on the mountain, and especially in the valley of Orizaba and Cordoba, are Henri Galeotti, August Ghiesbreght, E. Bourgeau, M. Botteri and Frederick Mueller. The volcano of Orizaba is described by Liebmann as the most interesting mountain in North America. It has a latitude of 18 degrees and lies surrounded by the very fertile country of southern Mexico. It is only ninety miles from the gulf, and having such a situation there is presented upon its eastern slope every phase of vegetation from tropical to alpine.
The region in the vicinity of Cordoba, at an elevation of 3,000 feet and a distance of sixty miles from the coast, has a sub-tropical vegetation. Palms grow in abundance and orange, banana and coffee trees attain a high de- gree of cultivation. Prominent among the families that make up the shrubby and herbaceous flora are the Malvace*, Leguminosse, Rubiacea', Compositte, Aeclepiadacere, Convolvulacea?, Solanacea?, Euphorbiacea^ and Bromelliacere, besides the grasses, sedges and ferns.
The town of Orizaba, 1,000 feet higher up the mountain, has a somewhat less tropical vegetation in the way of cultivated plants. At this altitude the Composite have their greatest display. The Helianthoideae are the forms most abundant, and not only are they characteristic of this particular region but have in Mexico their greatest concentration, amounting, it has been estimated, to thirty-two per cent, of the species and two-fifths of the genera of all the Compositse of the country. The sub-order Eupatoriacese ranks second in numerical strength, the genera Eupatorium and Stevia, how- ever, contributing nearly all the species. The Asteroideee, have but little representation in the forms Aster, Erigeron and Solidago, which are so char- acteristic of the north. All the other sub-orders of the family are present excepting the Arctotidefo and Calendulactte, which are confined principally to southern Africa.
Collections were made at three successively higher stations till the alti- tude of 9,000 feet was reached, and this zone of 5,000 feet above the town of Orizaba may be considered as the temperate region, and that above 9,000 feet as alpine. Many plants of the sub-tropical region extend their range to the temperate and even to the alpine district, this being especially true
81
of the low growing plants like Oxalis, Stellaria Trifolium and several of the Malvas. The temperate zone is characterized, nevertheless, by many genera and families that are not present or are hardly noticeable in the more trop- ical regions. The genus Salvia and order Lythraceae have a strikingly large distribution. Of these latter Cuphea is the most conspicuous element, growing in great abundance under all conditions of soil and moisture. There are many representatives from the Geraniacere, Borraginace*, Scroph- ulariacea?, Verbenacea? and Acanthacea% which take the place in a great measure of the Malvaceae, Kubiacese, Asclepiadaceie, Solanaceee and Euphor- biacesB in the tropics.
Great and rapid changes are experienced in the flora as the slopes are as- cended above 9 000 feet, and there are well marked zones for the distribu- tion of plants till the limit of vegf tation is reached. Between 9,000 and 10,- 000 feet, species of Sisymbrium, Lepidium, Geum, Epiiobium, O^.nothera, Krynitzkia, Mimulus, Castilleia, Verbena, Salvia, Plantago and Chenopo- dium, are the most characteristic forms of the herbaceous flora. Promi- nent among the Compositpe are Steria, Avillea, Dahlia and Tagetes, and be- sides Eupatorium and Baccharis the shrubby flora is represented by Rubus, Symphoricarpos and Bu'idleia. Prominent among the grasses are Agrostis, Muehlenbergia and Bromus, and the ferns are represented by Adiantum, Cheilanthes, Woodsia and Asplenium.
Between 11,000 and 12,000 feet the forests are entirely of pines and spruce. The greater part of the herbaceous flora at this altitude is composed of Ce- rastium, Lupinus, Acaena, Eryngium, Arracacia, Halenia, Penstemon, Cni- cus and Stenanthium. Penstemon and Stenathium are exceedingly abun- dant, though possessing a very limited range.
At 13,000 feet the vegetation consists principally of Ceraetium, Arenaria, Potentilla, Castelleia and Lithospernum. The pine woods, beginning at 7,000 feet, disappear at 13,000 feet, excepting stunted forms that continue to 14,000 feet. At 13,500 feet the vegetation becomes scantier and the slopes more sandy and beset with masses of sharp pointed rocks. The dry, sandy soil produces species of Draba, Gnaphalium, Senecio, Cnicus, Agrostis, Bro- mus and Asplenium. Even a.% 14,000 feet on the higher slopes, just at the snow line, there exists quite a varied vegetation, with species of Draba, Sisymbrium, Gnaphalium, Cnicus, Asplenium and the grasses of the sandy plain belo ST. This was the highest point colleci ions were made, but sev- eral species extend their range a hundred feet higher, and Dr. Scovell secured a Draba at 15,000 feet.
6
82
The collection numbered 510 species, distributed among 459 Phanero- gams and 51 Pteridophytes. In this limited space no mention has been made of species, the object being only to present the geiieral character of the flora of the mountain, as shown by the distribution of certain families and genera. A more complete report will be published later, with notes on species.
Ax APPAKATIS FOR DETERMINING THE PERIODICITY OF ROOT PRESSIRE. By
M. B. Thomas.
[acsthact.]
The paper presented the need of a self-registering apparatus for deter- mining the periodicity of root pressure, and gave an outline of the ones now in use, all of which were seen to need constant attention. An appa- ratus made in the following manner was suggested. The base of the in- strument is about 1^x3'^ and is supported by legs about ?/^ high. About W^ from one end and in the center of the base is erected a standard about 2^ high and 4'^ in width. On the short end of the base and near the post is fastened a set of strong clock-works. The works are covered with a box and the end of a cylinder (V in diameter and V 10^' high is fastened to the hour pinion of the clock by means of a pin passing through a hole in the end of the pinion and fitting in a slot in the end of the cylinder. The top of the cylinder is held in place by a pin passing through a support from the main pillar and a hole in the end of the cylinder. To the large upright pillar is fastened a U tube of about V in diameter ; one arm being nearly as high as the pillar and the other but half the height. The tube is filled with mercury to within about an inch of the top of the short arm. The stem of the plant is cut off near the base and placed in position. An in- verted U tube is fastened lo the stem in the usual way by means of a rub- ber tube fastened with wire while the other end of the U tube is connected with the larger one in the same way. The small XJ tube is filled with wa- ter through an opening in the top. The cylinder which is made of light tin is blackened by revolving it slowly in the flames of a candle or gas jet. The indicator consists of a light steel wire with a cork at the end some- what smaller than the diameter of the tube. This rests on the mercury. It is then at the top of the tube bent twice at right angles and allowed to extend to the bottom of the cylinder where it is again bent twice at right
83
angles and the end allowed to rest against the smoked surface of the cylin- der. A pin driven in the pillar prevents the wire from turning to one side because of the friction of its end with the cylinder. As the root absorbs water the pressure upon the column of mercury increases, causing it to rise in the tube lifting the cork and indicator with it. The indicator then marks a continuous spiral course on the cylinder. The hourly variation can be studied by observing the distances between the lines. The supply of water given to the plant must be kept constant. An eight day clock should be used and the apparatus need scarcely be touched until the plant is exhausted.
The distkibutiox of tropical kekns in Peninsilar Florida. By LirciEx M. Underivood. To one who makes a visit to Florida for the first time, constant surprises appear on every hand ; sand, palmetto and Spanish moss were expected, but the excess of dry pine lands over hamaks, the multitudinous lakes of every size and shape, the comparative purity of the waters, and the variety of elevation apparent in short distances, formed elements that were not looked for and that serve to modify the botanical features of the country to a considerable extent. The river systems are mostly in a north and south direction, and the rivers are sluggish and often rather deep. Throughout the interior of the state, lakes of all sizes are abundant ; twenty-five to thirty lakes in a single township (six miles square) is not unusual. Most of the small lakes are without outlets, and frequently stand in deep hol- lows. Sometimes you may find two lakes a half mile or so apart with a difierence of elevation from 50 to 100 feet. Except for a slight discolora- tion from roots, the water is remarkably clear and few algae were seen. With the exception of river borders where clay and black mud are found, there is everywhere the loose gray sand that rolls under foot of man or beast, making progress slow and tedious, that supports no turf and only a scattered vegetation, that absorbs moisture rapidly, and th^t contains a fine dust that filters through the clothing and renders one black and grimy after even the shortest tramp. Occasional swamps occur where a forme r pond has given way to a bog, or where a small stream is choked up and thus overflows its usual bounds ; here a variety of deciduous trees stand thick together interwoven with the omnipresent and exceedingly spiny
84
Smilax of many species. Here and there are occasional overflows of larger streams where the cypress flourishes, but pine is the prevailing forest growth. From Gainesville southward through Ocala and on toward the center of the state is found higher ground which, long before the phos- phate fiend had bored the rocks for paying phosphate, was pitted with nat- ural sink holes and caves where moisture is ever present and where the frosts rarely penetrate. These extend to Brooksville and beyond, and are found on either side of the Withlacoochee river. Further southward and including the lower fourth of the peninsula are the low everglades with saw grass lakes and scrub-palmetto barrens soaked with water during the spring rains, which is reduced to scattered shallow ponds in the dry season. Although Florida possesses a larger number of ferns than most of the states of the Union (-43), and of these more than half (24) are found in no other state, one who visits the state in the winter season will be impressed with the rarity of ferns unless the state is reached before the usual Decem- ber frosts have cut down the fronds. Along the rivers and wherever moist- ure is abundant Woodward a Virginica grows luxuriantly in its season as the most abundant fern. With it appear two of the Osmundas though far less abundant than in northern swamps. It seems out of harmony with our preconceived notions to find the fertile fronds of 0. cinnamomea grow- ing from a circle of older sterile ones, but this condidon is common even in January. Farther down the state Blechnum and Aspidium unitum and some other species are occasional, but are rarely abundant, at least in the upper two-thirds of the peninsula. In drier land Ptcris aquilina grows in a more or less stunted condition, but in the more tropical parts of the state it grows occasionally to an excessive height. Next to Woodwardia it is probably the most abundant species. Polypodium incanum is everywhere found to a lim- ited extent on tree trunks, but is found in profusion only in the southern third of the state. At Orange Bend we found the mucrnnata form of Mar- silia vestita in abundance rooting in sand and mud. While this is more or less common from Oregon and Dakota to Southern California and Texas it has never been reported bi fore from east of the Mississippi. Its presence in Central Florida becomes almost as interesting a problem as that of its congener, M. quadrifolia, in Northwestern Connecticut. No fruit could be found in January, but in the latter part of March fruit was found in great abundance.
The uncertainty of frosts makes the collecting peiiod difficult to predict. Sometimes the fall frosts hold ofl" until Januaiy, and often cease to be
8.5
troublesome after the middle of February. In other years they appear anywhere from December to April. Often they are local, while again there will be a general freeze that will cut down all tender vegetation. The "great frost"' of March, 1886, was sufHciently severe to kill the young fruits of the cocoanut as far south as Lake Worth, and killed out much of the Vittaria as far down the gulf side as ^Manatee. During last winter several frosts appeared in January as far south as the lake region, and on the 8th of April the Woodwardias along the St John's from Sanford to Palatka were all drooping from a cutting frost. Of course in secluded places ferns may be found at any season, but only in comparatively frostless winters can they be seen to advantage in the northern half of the state.
The rarer ferns of Florida are tucked awaj' in inaccessible quarters and are not to be found without much searching. Of the ferns peculiarly trop- ical three groups may be considered: (1.) The swamp species. (2.) The epiphytes, (o.) The lime-rock ferns. Of the swamp species, i>Zec/i/mm ser- rulatum is perhaps the most common ; ordinarily this species grows from two to three feet high, but toward its northern limit along the outlet of Lake Dora we found robust forms six and seven feet high. Nephrolepis ex- altata we found in profusion at the same place growing on decaying stumps and logs. In fact this seems to be its usual habitat instead of palmetto trunks, as so often stated. A^pidium unitum has much the same range. Polypodium phiillitidls comes north on the gulf side as far as the Manatee river and we found it not uncommon at Lake Worth. Acrostichum aureum frequents the brackish borders of tidal streams occasionally encroaching below high water mark. In the west coast it comes up as far as Tampa, and on the Atlantic coast it is more or less common throughout the Indian river country and comes well up to the coast above Titusville. We did not find Asplenium serratum in any part of the state visited, though Garber reported it from Manatee in 1879. It more properly belongs in the really tropical portion of Florida.
Of the epiphytic species Mttaria and Polypodium aureum come furthest north. We found abundance of the former between lakes Griffin and Har- ris ; the latter may be seen occasionally in the vicinity of Lake Monroe, though it is more common below Titusville on the east and Tampa Bay on the west. Vittaria grosvs pendent on palmetto trunks at every height and in every stage of growth from prothallus to mature plant.* Its northern
"■■It may be of interest to state that a species of liverwort, Biccia rdiculala, was basrd on the prothallus of this fern.
S(i
limit as we found it is in Lake county. Poh/podium aureum usually grow s just under the clustered leaves of the cabbage palmetto, often at a height of twenty-five or thirty feet. OpMoglossum palmatum comes as far north as Manatee where we found the sterile fronds in February after a wearj' search, for it grows well up on the palmetto trunks, burying its roots deeply between the old decaying bases of the palmetto leaves. He who attempts to climb the palmetto trunk is not usually anxious for the second trip.
The Ophioglossum fruits in April or perhaps the last of March and is the most peculiar member of its order, since most of its congeners are terres- trial in habit. The remaining epiphytes have not been found north of the tropical portions of Florida, which include the Keys and the region of Bis- cayne Bay.
The rock-loving species have a more extensive distribution as they grow in places beyond the reach of ordinary frosts ; in the high hamak region to which allusion has been made, several of the tropical species linger in por- tions of Florida, too cold even for the successful culture of the Orange. In the various limestone sinks about Ocala may be found Pteris cretica, As- plenium rhizophyUum, Asplenium firnmm, Poli/podium. pecctinaium, Aspidium patens and Adiantum teneritm. From this same region the rare Phegopteris tetragona was collected, but its discoverer holds the exact locality in secret, and furnishes herbarium specimens at 50 cents apiece. While this method of procedure is not what is expected among botanists, one who knows the diflBculty and expense of securing some of the rare Florida ferns can scarcely have the heart to criticise too harshly.
A still more interesting locality for the rock ferns is on the Withla- coochee river, two and a half miles below Istachatta. This town which makes considerable display on the maps, consists of two houses and a store and must be reached from Pemberton the nearest railroad station by boat I r private conveyance. As the exact locality has never been defined it was by merest chance that we met ]\Ir. F. M. Townsend, the proprietor of the store at Istachatta, who conducted Donnell Smith to the same location in 188:'). The locality, which is on the premises of Mr, George K. Allen, was reached just at nightfall. Here, besides a much greater profusion of the species found at Ocala, are found the rare and variable Phegopteris rep^ tans and a great profusion of Aspidium trifoHatwu. Other stations are found near Brooksville and farther down the river on either side. In these shel- tered sink holes, protected from frost and so far removed from sunshine as to retain moisture in the driest season, these relics of a tropical flora still
87
persist, never attracting the attention of either the native "cracker" or the northern migrant, both of whom stare alike at the botanist and his outfit and doubtless wonder what he can want of "fearns." While the higher flora of the tropics does not begin to appear until we reach the Manatee on the west coast and Lake Worth on the Atlantic seaboard, these outliers of the tropical flora extend from two to three degrees farther north, and rep- resent the stragglers in the southern retreat that has marked the southern extension of the peninsula from reef to key and from key to everglade.
With all the information that could be gathered before starting we found that the experience of the winter was necessary to learn the peculiarities of the country and the best localities for exploration and especially how to reach them after they were made known, for of all English speaking coun- tries to learn how to reach a given point Florida is one of the worst in our experience. To point out some of the best localities for future exploration is partly the object of this paper. We would like also to protest against the stupid method of sending out collectors to look simply for the higher vegetation of a new region. Mosses and hepatics, algjv-, lichens and fungi form just as much a part of the flora of a country as do the seed plants and ferns and often furnish more valuable information regarding the true char- acter of a region than can be gained from a study of the higher flora alone.
Four distinct regions in Florida suggest themselves as likely to yield not only more interesting tropical ferns than have yet been brought to light, but a rich har.vest of new facts and species illustrating the nature and dis- tribution of the tropical flora of the peninsula. This, however, will only be possible when the critical botanist gets away from his dried herbarium fragments and studies the flora face to face in its native fastnesses. Then only can biological surveys prove a success. These regions are :
1. The river region>i of West Florida. — The AVithlacoochee, especially from Pemberton Ferry to the mouth, and including lakes Tsala Apopka and Pen- asoffkee on either side, the ]\Ianatee, the Myakka and the Peace. Explor- ations along these rivers can best be made in boats* and are likely to well repay the cost, for while nearly all have been somewhat visited by bota- nists, the country has been skimmed rather than explored.
2. The interior lake region of South Florida. — This would involve a trip from Kissimmee southward down the chain of lakes to Okeechobee and
-The region of Lake Tsala Apopka and Lake Penasuffkee conld best be explored with a horse and wagon, though the develoinnent of phosphate beds in Citrus coxinty is likely to extend the public means of conveyance. Kailroads in Florida are too slow and uncertain for much depeudeuce for short trips.
and then westward through the drainage canals and the Caloosahatchee river to Punta Raesa. This means from 200 to 250 miles by boat, subjec- tion to considerable hardship, and could only be undertaken by a party.
3. The Keys. — Within the triangle whose base is a line running from Key West to Key Largo, and whose apex is at Punta Rassa, there are myr- iads of small islands, all lying in the tropical portion of Florida, which have never received anything like a thorough botanical exploration. These can only be explored by boat. A small sailing craft can be obtained at Tampa, INIanatee, or Key West, for $40 a month furnished with a sailor who will also act as cook. Board is cheap, for game and fish are abundant, while other supplies will have to be obtained at the point of embarkation. The scattering trips that have already been made to this region have yielded some of the rarer ferns, to say nothing of extensive additions to the higher flora of the state, ranging from a new genus of palms down. Unless it be among the algtc not a single specimen of the lower cryptogams has been collected in this region.
4. The Biscayne Bay region. — The fairest spot we found in Florida during last winter was Lake Worth. The northern tourist who leaves this out misses the best of the state. Here the climate is that of Southern Califor- nia, mild and balmy like all Florida, and yet with the invigorating tonic that nearly all the rest of Florida sadly lacks. Here, too, if you are fortu- nate enough to stop at Oaklawn on the mainland, you will find as we did the first square meal in Florida, served by the genial judge of Dade county, who is also the proprietor of the best hotel on the lake. Here was the firat real taste of the tropics. Tropical fruits and cocoanuts in profusion, man- groves without trunks set up on spider like roots, banyans, and a profusion of strange shrubs and trees. It was only when too late to avail ourselves of the trip that we learned how to reach Biscayne Bay from the Atlantic side. Of course it could be reached from the Gulf side by boat,* but in vain did we try to learn whether there was an overland passage from Mi- ami to Lake Worth. Here we found that a solitary mail carrier tramps the distance (about 60 miles) once a week, thus bringing the two settlements of Dade county within reach of each other. He goes up and down the beach, for there is no other path. Life saving stations are scattered along the coast at intervals of about 25 miles, and the only places where there is real danger is at the inlets, which, during the high seas are difficult to nav-
* Miami may he reached from Tampa by a tri-weekly mail steamer to Key West (fare $10), thence by sailing vessel which carries bi-weekly mail to Miami (fare $4).
89
igate in the frail barks that serve lor ferries, and the inlets are usually in- fested with both sharks and " 'gators." The best collecting ground is usu- ally within 300 yards of the coast line. The ordinary guide books state that " there is nothing of interest below Lake Worth," but one who has seen the country below from a botanical standpoint says " there is nothing above Lake Worth," Botanically this is doubtless the most interesting region of all Florida. The part between Lake Worth and Miami has so far as we know never been trodden by a botanist. Around Miami and on the neighboring Keys have been found most of the remaining tropical ferns of Florida, viz.: PolypocUum Sirartzii, Asplenium serratum, A. dentatum, Nephro- lepis acuta, Pteru longifolia, Tirnitis lanceolata and Aneimia adiantifolia.
Some ai>ditiuns to the istatk flora ikom I^ltnam county. By Lucien M.
IJXDEKAVOOD.
While the higher flora of Indiana seems to be fairly well known, it is surprising to find so little on record regarding the lower cryptogams of the state. Except a short paper on " The Mildews of Indiana,"* a few bulletins from the experiment station relating to some injurious fungi, a shortlist of mosses and lichens from Richmond,! and a few scattering notes in the Botanical Gazette, nothing has been placed on record, which, however, is far from saying that nothing has been done in this direction. It is a question whether as teachers of botany we have not swung the pendulum too far in training our students to become expert section- cutters and discrioainating histologists and have thereby left out of their course that cultural feature of botany that comes only from bringing them in direct contact with na- ture. I plead for considerable field work as an invaluable adjunct to labora- tory instruction. In a year's study of botany a student ought to become fairly proficient in the manipulation of the microscope and at the same time learn how and where plants grow (and especially the less conspicuous plants), and where their position is in the system, thus gaining a love for nature as well as a knowledge of the methods of manipulation. Botany ought to be a cultural study as well as a purely technical one. When we
-J. N. Rose, Botanical Gazette, XI, CO-'J:! (188(1).
tMary P. Haines, 8th, 0th and 10th Ann. Reports, Geol. Survey, 235--J;!9 (1870).
consider the tendency of botanical instruction for the past ten years, it is not surprising that the younger generation of botanists do not know how to collect, and when turned loose in some highly interesting botanical field find, to the sorrow of those who want something of them, that their eyes are trained only for an immersion lens and not at all for learning the rich- ness of the flora about them.
AVhile the season since our advent to the state has been exceedingly dry and therefore unfavorable to the development of fungi, we have in three or tour short excursions in the immediate vicinity of Greencastle, secured suf- ficient material to show a rich cryptogamic flora. A few of the more inter- esting discoveries will be noted and exhibited :
1. On the sandstone rocks at Fern, a rare moss, Eustichia Norvegica, is found in great abundance covering many square rods of the rock wall. It was first reported by Sullivant in 184(3 from Lancaster, Ohio, and distri- buted in his Musci AUeghanienses as no. 188. Rau has reported it from Penn- sylvania and Mrs. Britton found it in fruit for the first time in the Dalles of the Wisconsin in July, 1883. Its sterile states have been figured by Sul- livant* and its fruit by Mrs. Brittont. This Indiana station makes the fourth in the fourth state.
2. On clay banks at Fern we have found a hepatic new to America, Fos- sombronia cristata, Lindb.t In Europe it has frequently been confounded with F. pusilla and is possibly the plant reported under that name by Sul- livant in one of the earlier issues of Gray's Manual. Of the true pusilla we have seen no American specimens in fruit, and Fos»ombronia is one of the few genera of the Jungermaniaceie in which the exospore is sufficiently difi^erentiated to furnish satisfactory specific characters. F. cristata is easily recognized by the confluent crests of its spores. Its known range hitherto includes Finland, Sweden, Germany, France and England.
3. Trametes ambigua (Berk.) Fr. This is not an an uncommon species in the vicinity of Greencastle and Fern. It was iirst described by Berkleyi< from specimens collected by Lea in the vicinity of Cincinnati, and has since been reported from Ohio by Morgan, from Kansas by Cragin, and from Missouri by Demetrio, through whom it was distributed by Ellis in N. A. Fungi under the original name Dxdalia ambigua (no. 1593.)
4. Hjfdnum stratosum Berk, has been found once under a rotten log near
-Mem, Amer. Acad. n. s. Ill, 1. 1 (1846.1
tBull. Torrey Bot. Club. X, 99 (1883.)
JNotiser pro Fauna et Flora Fennica, XIII, 388 (1874).
^.Dxdalea ambigua Berk. Decades of Fungi, n. 83 (184(i).
91
Greencastle. It was first reported from the vicinity of Cincinnati by Lea in 1845, ■ and afterward by JMorgan. AVe found it in 1889 near Syracuse, N . Y. This makes the third station known to us. The species when fully mature is unlike any other species of Hi/dnum in the stratification of the spines.
5. Cordi/ceps capitata Fr. We have found one specimen of this species in rich woods at Fern. It belongs to a group of fungi that are usually para- sites either on living animals like the "caterpillar fungus" of New Zea- land, or on living pupte of insects like f. militaris, or on truffles like the present species. This species is usually reported as growing in pine woods, but we found it last year at Cambridge, Mass., growing under oaks on Elap]Lomiieei< grannlatus which is the usual host on which it has been re- ported from North Carolina by Curties and from New York by Peck. The present specimen seems to be saprophytic, growing from a nidus of decay- ing matter. It was found of course under deciduous trees.
6. Phallus Ravcneln B. & C.t seems to be the common stink-horn of this vicinity. It was originally reported from South Carolina and we found it once at Cambridge, Mass. Fnder a rotten log at Fern we found its myce- lial strands a ramifying network which extended ten feet or more, giving rise to fifteen or twenty fruits in various stages of development. In addi- tion to these fruits there were irregular swellings on the mycelial strands in great abundance ; the larger ones were hollow, the smaller solid. They suggest fichrotla which so far as we know have never been reported among phalloids. As the specimens were collected in November, it would seem that the plant was making an effort to store up nutriment in these tuber- like bodies for the necessities of the following season.
Besides PhalJm Rannelli, which is easily recognized by its rudimentary veil, its thin pileus, and its mild fragrance (?), we have found two other P/ia/^i in this vicinity. P. dupJIcatus we have found once. An enormous specimen ten inches in height and with a large bell-like veil fully four inches acroes is evidently the plant that was referred by MorganJ to P. D<r- jiionum. That its odor was diabolical we can fully testify. Although Fischer has combined all the indusiate forms with Pliallns dupHcatus and refers then to the genus Dicti/ophora, we have certainly a distinct species in this specimen ; whether it should bear the name P. Dwmormm or not is another question to be settled later.
■= loc. cit. n. 86.
tGrevilla, II, Sn (1873). Fischer refers it to Ithyphallus.
t.four. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist. XI, 145 (1889).
i)2 Connecting forms among the tolyporoid fungi. By L. M. Underwood.
Unused forest resoi rces. By Stanley Coulter.
Distribution of certain forest trees. By Stanley Coulter.
Cleistogamy in Polygonum. By Stanley Coulter.
The Cactus flora of the southwest. By W. H. Evans.
Diseases of the sugar beet root. By Katherine E. Golden, In some analyses of sugar beets made at the Purdue Experimenting Sta- tion by Prof. Houston, station chemist, the percentage of sugar was so low that an investigation as to the cause was made. Upon a microscopic exam- ination by Dr. Arthur, station botanist, the low per cent, roots were found to have bacteria in them. After that the roots were observed closely, and it was found that individual beets among all the varieties grown were af- fected, to a greater or less extent, with this bacterial disease.
The roots thus aflPected do not differ in outward appearance from the healthy roots, but are much lighter in weight. The texture of a healthy root is firm and somewhat brittle, and in color is a clear white, while the diseased root is rather soft and tough and of a yellowish white color. If the diseased root be cut transversely, concentric rings of brownish dots are seen.* These rings are formed by the fibro- vascular bundles, the dots being the separate bundles. The cells of the bundles have a deposition of yellow coloring matter upon their walls, which becomes somewhat darker upon exposure to air.
•■■•Circles of dark dots are found in all sugar beet roots, but in the diseased roots they as- sume a greater prominence, and thus are very effective in the determination of the disease.
<);5
During the early growth of the plants no difierence can be seen between the diseased and healthy ones, but as they develop the outer leaves of the diseased plants wither, while the heart leaves curl up much more than the normal, are dull in color, and the under side has a mottled appearance, causing the leaves to resemble somewhat those of the Savoy cabbage. As the season advances the differences between the diseased and healthy plants become more and more accentuated. In the early season the bacteria are found in parts of the plant only, but that may be any part from the leaves to the extreme end of the tap root ; on account of this it is diflBcult to sur- mise how the plants become diseased. In the late season the bacteria are found permeating every part of the plant.
Examined microscopically the bacteria are found to the greatest extent in the parenchymatous tissue, but the tissue is not broken down by them. They are found imbedded in the substance of the protoplasm as well as be- ing in the cell sap.
In form the beet bacterium is shortly cylindrical, being about twice as long as broad. They occur mainly as isolated cells, though they are some- times found in pairs. When vegetating rapidly the bacteria are very active, moving in and out among one another with great rapidity. From their ar- throsporous character the bacteria of the sugar beet very probably belong to the genus Bacterium.
The pure germ is easily obtained by the ordinary gelatine or agar plate separation method, if a piece of the root that has no contact with the surface be used for inoculation. This gives the disease germ only, free from soil and air contamination.
Very good development of the bacterium has been obtained by test tube cultures of acid and neutral nutrient gelatine. Upon acid gelatine, using spot cultures, the bacterium forms round, irregular-edged, greyish-yellow masses, having beautiful iridescent surfaces. This iridescence is a peculiar characteristic of the organism grown upon solid acid media. The masses retain this iridescence for about two weeks; then the surfaces become crust- like and dry, and the masses decidedly yellow in color. The bacteria liquefy the gelatine, gradually forming hemispherical depressions into which they drop. In neutral gelatine cultures they form, in most respects, the same kind of growth as in acid, but the surface has simply a shiny appearance, and as the masses ages they do not form crust-like surfaces. They liquefy the neutral gelatine much more rapidly than the acid.
A curious feature of this organism is that it causes the gelatine to become
94
distinctly alkaline, even though it be acid before the organism has grown on it. The diseased beet roots give a neutral or very slightly acid reaction.
In a Pasteur sugar culture the bacteria grow well, causing the liquid to become slightly turbid in 24 hours. As growth goes on, the turbidity be- comes greater, and again decreases until at the end of nine or ten days, when the growth practically ceases, the liquid becomes clear, the bacte- ria forming a greyish yellow sediment in the bottom of the tube.
They also develop well in sterilized sugar beet juice, but as contact with the air causes the juice to turn black, they are not readily seen. In juice that had been cleared by filtering through bone black very poor growths were obtained.
Inoculation tests were made upon six apparently healthy roots that were brought from the garden into the greenhouse. Four of these now give in- dications of having the disease ; the leaves are crinkled, the under side being dull and mottled in appeaVance. Bacteria were found in the leaves and petioles.
Considerable interest attaches to this disease from its reduction of the sugar content of the root, and its prevalence throughout the state. The study of the subject was begun too late to estimate the loss by the dis- ease, but as was already mentioned, diseased plants were found among all the beets grown on the station grounds, which included eight varieties for the past year — Red Top sugar, Silesian sugar. Imperial sugar, Dippe's Vil- morin, Simon LeGrand improved white, Dippe's Kleiwanzleben, Flormond Desprez richest, and Bultean Desprez richest. Roots were sent to the station for analysis from twenty-seven different places in the state and from nineteen of these some of the roots were diseased. This is not a fair estimate of the prevalence of the disease, however, as the tendency is, in sending beets for analysis, to choose the best looking and most nearly perfect ones, and the proportion of infected specimens included is neces- sarily much short of the actual average.
There were more of the Kleiwanzleben and Vilmorin beets sent than of the other varieties, and these gave respectively 12.9 per cent, and 12.7 per cent, diseased roots. Counting all the varieties there were 434 beets s(nt, among which were 12.1 per cent, diseased. In analyzing for the sugar con- tent one set gave 13.3 per cent for good beets, 11.9 per cent, for beets show- ing a trace of the disease ; another set gave 10.2 per cent, for good ones, 7 per cent, for diseased ones; while still another set, that Prof. Huston thinks gives the fairest estimate of loss, gave 10.3 per cent, for good beets, and 5.7
95 .
per cent, for diseased ones, a lo6s of nearly 50 per cent, of the sugar content. The per cent, of sugar is expressed in terms of the beet, not of the juice.
Besides the bacterial disease that is general for all parts of the plant, the sugar beet roots are afft?cted with diseases of a local character. These are in the form of surface scabs, discoloration of the tissue, and small masses of tissue different from that surrounding them.
The scabs are of two kinds, one resembling the so-called "deep scab" of potatoes, while the other protrudes from the surface.
The deep scabs are light brown in color wljen first affecting the root, but as the root is more deeply affected they become dark brown or rusty black. They vary in size from a mere dot to an extent sufficient to nearly cover the whole root, though the latter case is not so often found. The deep scabs are sometimes accompanied by a red discoloration of the tissue that, in some cases, extends fully two inches beneath the surface. Upon expos- ure to the air the red color changes to magenta. These scabs are not to be confounded with the breaks in the surface of the roots caused by uneven growth.
The raised scab differs essentially from the preceding in outward appear- ance, as it forms warty elevations on the surface of the roots. It has the same general color as the deep scabs, but has not been found covering so great an extent of surface as they. When found in large quantity, instead of extending itself over the surface, it seems to have a tendency to form bands encircling the root. It is oftenest found near the neck of the beet at or near the surface of the ground. Both forms of scab are found on the same root, sometimes in close proximity, and forms have been found seem- ingly intermediate between the two. It is probable that the two forms of scab are just different stages of the same disease ; the raised scab being the first stage, where the irritated tissue with the corky modifications form ele- vations on the surface of the root ; as the tissue outside the corky layers dies and is gradually eliminated, the depressions are left in the surface. This theory is given further force from the fact that the same organism has been obtained from plate cultures of both forms of scab. The organism has the characteristic of the potato scab germ described by Dr. Thaxter.* There are the same filamentous forms that break up into bacteria-like bodies, and the dark stain given to the culture medium.
The organism itself is perfectly colorless, but it excretes a substance
*Annual Report Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta., 1890, pp. 81-95.
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•which in the presence of oxygen becomes dark brown. Cultures have been made in the fermentation tubes brought out by Dr. Theobold Smith, which are so constructed that one arm of the tube remains free of all gases. In such a tube the part of the culture in contact with the air becomes a deep brown color and that in the opposite gas- free portion remains uncolored for even a month or more, and its final change to brown, if the culture be con- tinued suflSciently long, is without doubt due to diflfusion, both of the gas absorbed from the air and the oxydized substance, by which they pass from the open arm of the tube into. the closed arm.
Prof. Bolley * has induced the scab on the sugar beets by irioculating with the organism from potato scab. The scab has also been transmitted to the beet directly from the potato, and also from soil in which pototoes affected with scab had been grown, by experiments made in a cool greenhouse at the Purdue station. In the former case a young potato tuber, just removed from a pot-grown plant and well covered with active scab, was laid in contact with a perfectly healthy root of a young beet. An examination was made eight days later, but with no distinct evidence of results. A further exam- ination thirty-seven days later showed a well defined scab about a quarter of an inch across upon the beet, where the diseased potato touched it, and no trace of scab elsewhere. In the latter case ten healthy beets were trans- planted to pots containing soil in which potatoes affected with the scab had been grown. These were examined sixty- four days after being trans- planted, and eight of the ten