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THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768 — 1771.
SECOND ten 1777—1784.
THIRD eighteen 1788—1797.
FOURTH twenty 1801 — 1810.
FIFTH twenty 1815—1817.
SIXTH twenty 1823—1824.
SEVENTH twenty-one 1830—1842.
EIGHTH twenty-two 1853 — 1860.
NINTH twenty-five 1875—1889. TENTH ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903.
ELEVENTH „ published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911.
COPYRIGHT
in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention
by THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
of the UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
Ail rights reserved
THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XXIV
SAINTE-CLAIRE DEVILLE to SHUTTLE
Cambridge, England:
at the University Press
New York, 35 West 32nd Street 191 1
R
Copyright, in the United States of America. 1911,
by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXIV. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,! WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
A. A. R * ARTHUR ALCOCK RAMBAUT, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. (
Radcliffe Observer, Oxford. Professor of Astronomy in the University of Dublin -< Schonfeld Eduard and Royal Astronomer of Ireland, 1892-1897.
A. Cy. ARTHUR ERNEST COWLEY, M.A., LiTT.D. [Samaritans;
Sub-Librarian of the Bodleian Library, Oxford, and Fellow of Magdalen College. \ Seadiah.
A. C. G. ALBERT CHARLES LEWIS GOTTHILF GUENTHER, M.A., M.D., PH.D., F.R.S. r
Keeper of Zoological Department, British Museum, 1875-1895. Gold Medallist, J Royal Society, 1878. Author of Catalogues of Colubrine Snakes, Batrachia, Salientia, 1 Shark (in part), and Fishes in the British Museum ; &c. L
A. E. H. A. E. HOUGHTON. f Re—,,.,, v Domlniruez
Formerly Correspondent of the Standard in Spain. Author of Restoration of the •{ oe"^no » wominguez, Bourbons in Spain. [ *TaneiSCO.
A. E. J. ARTHUR ERNEST JOLLIFFE, M.A. f
Fellow, Tutor and Mathematical Lecturer, Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Senior -{ Series. Mathematical Scholar, 1892.
A. F. L. ARTHUR FRANCIS LEACH, M.A. f
Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Charity Commissioner for England and Wales. I Formerly Assistant-Secretary of the Board of Education. Fellow of All Souls' | Schools. College, Oxford, 1874-1881. Author of English Schools at the Reformation; &c. I
A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HiST.S.
Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls'
College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, l893~-j Sanders, Nicholas.
1901. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1892; Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of
England under the Protector Somerset ; Henry VIII. ; Life of Thomas Cranmer ; &c. [
A. Ge. SIR ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, K.C.B. f Scotland: Geography and
See the biographical article: GEIKIE, SIR ARCHIBALD. \ Geology (in part).
A. Go.* REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. J Saravia, Adrian;
Lecturer in Church History in the University of Manchester. I Servetus, Michael.
A. H. S. REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, D.D., LL.D., Lirr.D. f Sardanapalus; Sargon;
See the biographical article: SAYCE, A. H. \ Sennacherib; Shalmaneser.
A. H.-S. SIR A. HouTUM-ScHiNDLER, C.I.E. f Seistan (in part) ; Shiraz;
General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. \ Shushter.
A. J. G. REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D.
Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United Independent J Sentuazint The College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University, and Member of] Mysore Educational Service. L
A. L. ANDREW LANG, LL.D. /Scotland: History;
See the biographical article: LANG, ANDREW. | Second Sight.
A. M.* REV. ALLAN MENZIES, D.D. f
Professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism, St Mary's College, St Andrews. Author J. Scotland, Church of. of History of Religion ; &c. Editor of Review of Theology and Philosophy.
A. M. Cl. AGNES MUMEL CLAY (Mrs Wilde). f
Formerly Resident Tutor of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. Joint-author of Sources J Senate of Roman History, 133-70 B.C.
Sand-grouse; Sandpiper; Scaup; Scoter; Scrub-bird-, Secretary-bird; Seriema;
A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S.
See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED.
Shearwater; Sheath bill; Sheldrake; Shoe-bill; Shoveler; Shrike.
1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume.
V
1993
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
A. No.
A. S. P.-P-
B. R.*
B. S. P.
C. A. G. B.
C. El.
C. F. A. C. F. B.
C. H.
C. H.* C. H. Ha.
C. J. F. C. L. K.
C. M.
ADOLF GOTTHARD NOREEN, PH.D. C
Professor of Scandinavian Languages at the University of Upsala. Author of J coonj!™.,,,-— t.,, Geschichte der Nordischen Sprachen; Altislandiscke und Altnorwegische Gram- 1 Scandinavian Languages. matik; &c. I
ANDREW SETH PRINGLE-PATTISON, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. (
Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Gifford I Scepticism; Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 1911. Fellow of the British Academy. | Scholasticism. Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos ; The Philosophical Radicals ; &c. I
Founder and First President of \ SavinSs Banks:
L United States.
Scandinavian Civilization
HON. BRADFORD RHODES.
Head of Banking Firm of Bradford Rhodes & Co. 34th Street National Bank, New York.
BERTHA SURTEES PHILLPOTTS, M.A. (Dublin).
Formerly Librarian of, Girton College, Cambridge.
SIR CYPRIAN ARTHUR GEORGE BRIDGE, G.C.B.
Admiral. Commander-in-Chief, China Station, 1901-1904. Director of Naval J Sea, Command of the; IntelHger.ee, 1889-1894. Author of The Art of Naval Warfare; Sea-Power and other 1 Sea-Power Studies ; &c. [
SIR CHARLES NORTON EDGCUMBE ELIOT, K.C.M.G., LL.D., D.C.L.
Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford. H.M.'s Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief for the British East ~( Saka Africa Protectorate; Agent and Consul-General at Zanzibar; Consul-General for German East Africa, 1900-1904.
CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. f
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal •{ Seven Weeks' War (in part) Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour. \_
CHARLES FRANCIS BASTABLE, M.A., LL.D. f
Regius Professor of Laws and Professor of Political Economy in the University of J Seiffnioraev Dublin. Author of Public Finance; Commerce of Nations; Theory of International \ C16"'>"»6<'- Trade ; &c. I
CHARLES HOSE, F.R.G.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc. I"
Jesus College, Cambridge. Formerly Divisional Resident and Member of thej Sai.au/aif Supreme Council of Sarawak. Knight of the Prussian Crown. Author of A \ Descriptive Account of the Mammals of Borneo; &c. l
SIR CHARLES HOLROYD.
See the biographical article: HOLROYD, SIR C.
CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D.
Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City, of the American Historical Association.
Short, Francis Job.
Member^ Sforza.
LIEUT.-COL. CHARLES JAMES Fox, F.R.G.S.
Chief Officer, London Salvage Corps. President of Association of Professional Fire Brigade Officers. Vice-President of National Fire Brigades Union; &c.
CHARLES L,ETHBRIDGE KINCSFORD, M.A., F.R.HiST.S., F.S.A.
Assistant-Secretary to the. Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. pf Chronicles of London, and Stow's Survey of London.
Salvage Corps.
Salisbury, Thomas de Monta- cute, Earl of;
C. Mi. " :
C. M. W. C. Pf. C. R. B.
C. W. R.
D. B. Ma.
Editor 1 Shore, Jane;
I Shrewsbury, 1st Earl of. CARL THEODOR, MIRBT, D.Tn.
Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author of Publizistik' im ZeitallerGregor VII.; QueUen zur Geschichte des Papstthums; &c.
CHEDOMILLE MIJATOVICH.
Senator of 'the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni- . potentiary of the King of Servia to the Court of St James', 1895-1900 and 1902-
Sardica, Council of.
Servia.
SIR CHARLES MOORE WATSON, K.C.M.G., C.B. f
Colonel, Royal Engineers. Deputy-Inspector-General of Fortifications, 1896- -j Sepulchre, The Holy. 1902. Served under General Gordon in the Soudan, 1874-1875. L
CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D.-is-L.
Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux.
Author of J Salic
Law.
CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A.. D.LiTT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HiST.S.
Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. • Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography ; &c.
CHARLES WALKER ROBINSON, C.B., D.C.L.
Major-General (retired). Assistant Military Secretary, Headquarters of the Army, 1890-1892. Lieut.-Governor and Secretary, Royal Military Hospital, Chelsea, ' 1895-1898. Author of Strategy of the Peninsular War; &c. L
DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, M.A., D.D. c
Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, Hartford, Conn. I Author of Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional | Theory; Selections from Ibn Khaldun; Religious Attitude and Life in Islam; &c. L
Sanuto, Marino; Schiltberger, Johann.
Salamanca: Baltic, 1812.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
vn
D. F. T.
D. G. H.
DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. (" cc»,erzo.
Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The-\ Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. l_ Serenade.
DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. f
Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, and Fellow of Magdalen College. Fellow Samsun; Sardis; of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and 1903 ; -< Scala Nuova' 1904-1905. Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Athens, oohliomaT V
Ephesus, 1897-1900.
Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.
Schliemann, Heinrich.
D. H.
D. 0.
E. A. M.
E. B. T. E. C. B.
E. F.
E.G. E. Gr. E. H. B.
E. H. M. E. J. D.
E. K. C.
Ed. M. E. M. T.
DAVID HANNAY.
Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Navy ; Life of Emilia Castelar ; &c.
Author of Short History of the Royal
Saints, Battle of the; St Vincent, Earl of; St Vincent, Battle of; • Santa Cruz, Marquis of; Seamanship; Seven Years' War: Naval Operations.
E.G.*
E. R. B.
E. Wa.
DOUGLAS OWEN. f
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer at the Royal Naval War College, Portsmouth, and at London School of Economics. Hon. Secretary and Treasurer J Shipping of the Society of Nautical Research. Author of Declaration of War; Belligerents and Neutrals; Ports and Docks; &c.
EDWARD ALFRED MINCHIN, M.A., F.Z.S. c
Professor of Protozoology in the University of London. Formerly Fellow of Merton J SevDhomedusae College, Oxford, and Jodrell Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy, | yy University College, London.
EDWARD BURNETT TYLOR, D.C.L., LL.D.
See the biographical article: TYLOR, EDWARD BURNETT.
RT. REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, M.A., O.S.B., Lirr.D.
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius ' in Cambridge Texts and Studies.
RT. HON. SIR EDWARD FRY.
See the biographical article: FRY, SIR EDWARD.
EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D., D.C.L.
See the biographical article: GOSSE, EDMUND.
ERNKST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A.
See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY.
SIR EDWARD HERBERT BUNBURY, Bart., M.A., F.R.G.S. (d. 1895).
M.P. for Bury St Edmunds, 1847-1852. Author of A History of Ancient Geography; &c.
ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A.
University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College.
EDWARD JOSEPH DENT, M.A., MUS.BAC.
Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. and Works.
, Salutations.
- Servites.
-: Selborne, 1st Earl of.
f Samain, Albert Victor; \ Sermon.
l Samos (in part).
1 Samos (in part).
J Sarmatae; I Scythia.
Author of A. Scarlatti: his Life Scarlatti, Alessandro.
EDMUND KERCHEVER CHAMBERS.
Assistant Secretary, Board of Education. Sometime Scholar of Corpus Christi
College, Oxford. Chancellor's English Essayist, 1891. Author of The Medieval -j Shakespeare.
Stage. Editor of the "Red Letter" Shakespeare; Donne's Poems; Vaughan's
Poems; Sec.
EDUARD MEYER, PH.D., D.Lrrr., LL.D. c c ,. -.,«,
Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichle des J „ , «S, oairap,
Allerthums; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens; Die Israeliten und Hire Nachbarstamme. [ Seleucia; Snapur l.-III.
SIR EDWARD MAUNDE THOMPSON, G.C.B., I.S.O., D.C.L., Lrrr.D., LL.D.
Director and Principal Librarian, British Museum, 1898-1909. Sandars Reader in Bibliography, Cambridge University, 1895-1896. Hon. Fellow of University College, Oxford. Correspondent of the Institute of France and of the Royal Prussian < Academy of Sciences. Author of Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography. Editor of Chronicon Angliae. Joint-editor of publications of the Palaeographical Society, the New Palaeographical Society, and of the Facsimile of the Laurentian Sophocles.
Seals;
Shorthand: Greek and Roman Tachygraphy.
EDMUND OWEN, F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. r
Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, J Scalp: Surgery; Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of ] Shock. A Manual of A natomy for Senior Students.
EDWYN ROBERT BEVAN, M.A. f
New College, Oxford. Author of The House of Seleucus; Jerusalem under the High \ Seleucid Dynasty. Priests.
REV. EDMOND WARRE, M.A., D.D., D.C.L., C.B., C.V.O. f shi Hi.lnrv ln the mention
Provost of Eton. Hon. Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford. Headmaster of Eton \ st"V- wslorylo the Invention College, 1884-1905. Author of Grammar of Rowing; &c. {_ o) Steamships.
F. J. G.
viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
F. E. Br. REV. FRANK EDWARD BRIGHTMAN, M.A., PH.D., D.Lrrr. f
Fellow and Tutor of Magdalen College, Oxford. Prebendary of Lincoln Cathedral. I Pusey Librarian, Oxford, 1884-1903. Author of Liturgies: Eastern and Western; j &c. I
F. G. M. B. FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. f
Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge. \
F. G. P. FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST. .
Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on I Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women, | London. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. I
MAJOR-GENERAL SIR FREDERICK JOHN GOLDSMID. Jc«i«*«.,/- ,\
See the biographical article : GOLDSMID (family). \ a n (tn ?an>-
F. LI. G. FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. fsais;
Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey Scarab* and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial •< _ German Archaeological Institute. Author of Stories of the High Priests of Memphis ; seraPls5 &c. [Sesostris.
F. N. M. COL. FREDERIC NATUSCH MAUDE, C.B. • f Sedan: Battle of;
Lecturer in Military History, Manchester University. Author of War and the\ Seven Weeks' War (in part); World's Policy; The Leipzig Campaign; The Jena Campaign; &c. I Seven Years' War (in part).
F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA. /St Helena (in part);
Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Unton. l Senegal' Senussi
F. S. FRANCIS STORR.
Trinity College, Cambridge. Editor of the Journal of Education, London. Officier •< Sand, George. d'Acaddmie, Paris. L
F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. f Sanohire.
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. •{
President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. I Serpentine.
G. A. B. GEORGE A. BOTJLENGER, D.Sc., F.R.S. f
In charge of the Collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British 1 Salmon and Salraonidac. Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London.
G. C. T. B. SIR GEORGE CHRISTOPHER TROUT BARTLEY, K.C.B. (1842-1910). f
Founderof the National Penny Bank. M.P. for North Islington, !885-i9o6. Author^ Savings Banks (in f>nrC\ of Schools fjr the People ; Provident Knowledge Papers ; &c. [
G. D. GEORGE DOBSON. f -,ltvlrB,, Mioliai,,
Author of Russia's Railway Advance into Central Asia; &c. \ M'WKOV, BUCHMl.
G. E. D. GEORGE EDWARD DOBSON, M.A., M.B., F.Z.S., F.R.S. (1848-1895). f
Army Medical Department, 1868-1888. Formerly Curator of the Royal J „. Victoria Museum, Netley. Author of Monograph of the Asiatic Chiroptera, &c. ; 1 Bnrew- A Monograph of the Insectivora, Systematic and Anatomical. [
G. G. S. GEORGE GREGORY SMITH, M.A. f Scotland. / ,>,„/„,,,.
Professor of English Literature, Queen's University, Belfast. Author of The Days J. ° of James IV.; The Transition Period; Specimens of Middle Scots, &c. [ Scott- Alexander.
G. H. Bo. REV. GEORGE HERBERT Box, M.A. r
Rector of Sutton Sandy, Beds. Formerly Hebrew Master, Merchant Taylors' School, J shekinah London. Lecturer in the Faculty of Theology, University of Oxford, 1908-1909. 1 Author of Translation of Book of Isaiah ; &c.
G. Sa. GEORGE SAINTSBURY, LL.D., D.C.L. f Saint-Simon, Due de;
See the biographical article: SAINTSBURY, GEORGE EDWARD BATEMAN. ( Sevigne, Madame de.
G. W. R. MAJOR GEORGE WILLIAM REDWAY. / Seven Days' Battle;
Author of The War of Secession, 1861-1862; Fredericksburg: a Study in War. \ Shenandoah Valley Campaigns.
G. W. T. REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. f shahrastani;
Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old •{ QUJ-I*- Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. I SI "s-
H. A. R. HENRY A. ROWLAND. f . ,. -. . , „
See the biographical article: ROWLAND, HENRY AUGUSTUS. \ -*(
Salisbury, Marquess of;
H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A.
Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition of • the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Co-editor of the loth edition.
H. De. REV. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S.
Bollandist. Joint-editor of the Acta Sanctorum; and the Analecta Bollandiana.
Shakespeare: The Shakespeare- Bacon Theory; Sherbrookc, Viscount.
Sebastian, St; Sergius, St.
H. F. G. HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, F.R.S., PH.D.
Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge. Author -s Sauropsida. of " Amphibia and Reptiles " in the Cambridge Natural History; &c.
H. F. T. REV. HENRY FANSHAWE TOZER, M.A., F.R.G.S. f
Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Tutor of Exeter College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Corresponding Member of the Historical Society of Greece, -j Santorin. Author of History of Ancient Geography; Classical Geography; Lectures on the Geography of Greece ; &c.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
IX
H. L. H. H. R. T.
I. A.
J. A. M. J. A. PI. J. A. R.
J. Bt.
J. B. A. I.E. J. E. S.*
J. F. S. J. G. Fr.
J. G. H. J. G. K.
J. G. R.
J. G. Sc. J. G. Si.
J. H. A. H. J. H. M.
J. H. R. J. HI. R.
{sepsis.
| Shakespeare: Bibliography.
HARRIET L. HENNESSY, M.D. (Brux.), L.R.C.P.I., L.R.C.S.I.
HENRY RICHARD TEDDER, F.S.A.
Secretary and Librarian of the Athenaeum Club, London.
ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. f
Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. J Samuel 01 Nehardea; Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short | Shekel. History of Jewish Literature ; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages ; Judaism ;&c. I
JAMES ALEXANDER MANSON.
Formerly Literary Editor of the Daily Chronicle, and Chief Editor, Cassell & Co., Ltd. -| Scotland: Geography (in part). Author of The Bowler's Handbook ; &c. L
JOHN ARTHUR PLATT, M.A. • f
Professor of Greek in University College, London. Formerly Fellow of Trinity -s Sappho. College, Cambridge. Author of editions of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey ; &c. L
VERY REV. JOSEPH ARMITAGE ROBINSON, M.A., D.D.
Dean of Wells. Dean of Westminster, 1902-1911. Fellow of the British Academy. Chaplain-in-Ordinary to the King. Hon. Fellow of Christ's College, • Cambridge. Norrisian Professor of Divinity in the University of Cambridge, 1893- 1899. Author of Some Thoughts on the Incarnation; &c.
JAMES BARTLETT. f Scaffold:
Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c., King's College, I RAWera»e. London. Member of Society of Architects, Institute of Junior Engineers, Quantity | * B ' Surveyors' Association. Author of Quantities. I Snoring.
JOSEPH BEAVINGTON ATKINSON. f
Formerly Art-critic of the Saturday Review. Author of An Art Tour in the Northern J. Schadow. Capitals of Europe; Schools of Modern Art in Germany. \_
H. JULIUS EGGELING, PH.D. f
Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology, Edinburgh University. Formerly J Sanskrit. Secretary and Librarian to the Royal Asiatic Society.
JOHN EDWIN SANDYS, M.A., LITT.D., LL.D.
Public Orator in the University of Cambridge. Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Scholarship; &c.
Scillitan Martyrs.
Fellow of St John's College, Author of History of Classical '
Scaliger (in part).
REV. JOHN FREDERICK SMITH.
Author of Studies in Religion under German Masters; translated G. H. A. von- Ewald's Commentaries on the Prophets of the Old Testament and the Book of Job.
JAMES GEORGE FRAZER, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., LITT.D.
Professor of Social Anthropology, Liverpool University. Fellow of Trinity College, • Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of The Golden Bough ; &c.
JOSEPH G. HORNER, A.M.I.MECH.E.
Author of Plating and Boiler Making; Practical Metal Turning; &c.
Schleiermacher (in part).
Saturn (in part).
Screw.
JOHN GRAHAM KERR, M.A., F.R.S. f
Regius Professor of Zoology in the University of Glasgow. Formerly Demonstrator se|aci.jftn . in Animal Morphology in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of Christ's College, J Cambridge, 1898-1904. Walsingham Medallist, 1898. Neill Prizeman, Royal Shark (in part). Society of Edinburgh, 1904.
JOHN GEORGE ROBERTSON, M.A., PH.D. r
Professor of German Language and Literature, University of London. Editor of the J Modern Language Journal. Author of History of German Literature ; Schiller after "j Schiller. a Century; &c.
SIR JAMES GEORGE SCOTT, K.C.I.E. f
Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. Author of Burma; J Salween: River; The Upper Burma Gazetteer. [ Shan States
REV. JAMES GILLILAND SIMPSON, M.A. f
Canon of St Paul's, London. Principal of Leeds Clergy School and Lecturer of Leeds J Scotland, Episcopal Church of. Parish Church, 1900-1910.
JOHN HENRY ARTHUR HART, M.A.
Fellow, Theological Lecturer and Librarian, St John's College, Cambridge.
Director I
~\
-! Scribes.
JOHN HENRY MIDDLETON, M.A., LITT.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896). Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886-1895. of the Fitzwilham Museum, Cambridge, 1889-1892. Art Director of the South ^ Kensington Museum, 1892-1896. Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical Times; Sculpture (in part). Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval Times.
JOHN HORACE ROUND M.A., LL.D. f c
Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family! ° History; Peerage and Pedigree. [ Serjeanty.
JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., LITT.D. f
Christ's College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge J Savarv University Local Lectures Syndicate. Author o/ Life of Napoleon I. ; Napoleonic | Studies ; The Development of the European Nations ; The Life of Pitt ; &c. L
X
J. H. V. C.
J. K. I. J. L. M.
J. M. M.
J. P.-B. J. S. F.
J. S. R.
J. T. Be. J. T. C.
J. T. S.* J.W.
J. W. He.
K. G. J. K. S. L. Bo.
L. J. S.
L.V. L. V.*
H. A. C.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
JOHN HENRY VERRINDER CROWE. r
Lieut.-Colonel, Royal Artillery. Commandant of the Royal Military College of Canada. Formerly _Chief Instructor in Military Topography and Military History -j Shipka Pass.
and Tactics at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. Russo-Turkish War, 1877-1878; &c.
JOHN KELLS INGRAM, LL.D.
See the biographical article: INGRAM, JOHN KELLS.
Author of Epitome of the
/ Say, Jean Baptiste; I Senior, Nassau.
JOHN LINTON MYRES, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.G.S.
Wykeham Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of
Magdalen College. Formerly Gladstone Professor of Greek and Lecturer in Ancient I galamis' C\t>rus
Geography, University of Liverpool. Lecturer in Classical Archaeology in the '
University of Oxford, and Student and Tutor of Christ Church. Author of A History
of Rome ; &c.
JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. f Sehelling (in part) ;
Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London •{ Shaftesbury, 3rd Earl of College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. [ (in part).
JAMZS GEORGE JOSEPH PENDEREL-BRODHURST. Editor of the Guardian, London.
-{ Sheraton, Thomas.
JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S. fSand; Sandstone;
Petrographer to the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. Formerly Lecturer J c.,,....!!*.. ID h \ on Petrology in Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of 1 Edinburgh. Bigsby Medallist of the Geological Society of London. L Scnorl.
JAMES SMITH REID, M.A., LL.D., Lrrr.D. f
Professor of Ancient History and Fellow and Tutor of Gonville and Caius College,'
Cambridge. Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Christ's College. 1 Severus, Lucius Septimius. Browne's and Chancellor's Medals. Editor of editions of Cicero's Academia; De Amicitia; &c.
(St Petersburg (in part) ; Sakhalin (in part) ; Samara: Government (in part) ; Samarkand: City (in part) ; Saratov: Government (in part).
JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S. r
Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly Fellow I Scaphopoda;
of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in the | Sea-Serpent (in part).
University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. L
JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, PH.D.
Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City.
JAMES WILLIAMS, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D.
All Souls' Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln College. Author of Wills and Succession ; &c.
JAMES WYCLIFFE HEADLAM, M.A.
f Saint-Simon, Comte de \ (in part).
Seamen, Laws relating to; Sheriff.
Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education, London.
Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek and Ancient -j Schmerling, Anton von.
History at the German
)ueen's College, London. Empire; &c.
Author of Bismarck and the foundation of
KINGSLEY GARLAND JAYNE.
Sometime Scholar of Wadham College, Oxford. Author of Vasco da Gama and his Successors.
KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER.
Editor of the Portfolio of Musical Archaeology. Orchestra.
Matthew Arnold Prizeman, 1903. - Salamanca.
Author of The Instruments of the
LioNCE BENEDITE.
Keeper of the Musee National du Luxembourg, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion < Honour. President of the Societe des Peintres orientalistes francais. Author Histoire des Beaux Arts; &c.
Sambuca; Saxhorn; Saxophone; Serpent: Music; Shawm; Shofar.
f J Sculpture: Modern French.
LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. f
Assistant in the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar J Scapolite; of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the 1 Scolecite. Mineralogical Magazine. [
LINDA MARY VILLARI.
See the biographical article: VILLARI, PASQUALE.
LUIGI VILLARI.
Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Department).
spondent in the East of Europe. Italian Vice-Cons
delphia, 1907, and Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910. Author of Italian Life in Town I
and Country; Sic. I
MAURICE ARTHUR CANNEY, M.A. ("
Assistant Lecturer in Semitic Languages in the University of Manchester. Formerly J cphpnkpl Exhibitioner of St John's College, Oxford. Pusey and Ellertpn Hebrew Scholar, 1 Oxford, 1892; Kennicott Hebrew Scholar, 1895; Houghton Syriac Prize, 1896.
Savonarola.
Formerly Newspaper Corre- Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906, Phila- -| Savoy, House of.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xi
M. Be. MALCOLM BELL. r
Author of Pewter Plate ; &c. \ Sheffield Plate.
M. Bt. MICHAEL BRETT. J
Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. \ Salvage: Military.
M. D. Ch. SIR MACKENZIE DALZELL CHALMERS, K.C.B., C.S.I., M.A. ("
Trinity College, Oxford, Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Permanent Under- Secretary I of State for the Home Department, London, and First Parliamentary Counsel to | Sa'e of Goods the Treasury. Author of Digest of the Law of Bills of Exchange; &c. I
M. Ha. MARCUS HARTOG, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S. f
Professor of Zoology, University College, Cork. Author of " Protozoa," in the •{ Sarcodina. Cambridge Natural History; and papers for various scientific journals. I
M. H. S. MARION H. SPIELMANN, F.S.A. f
Formerly Editor of the Magazine of Art. Member of Fine Art Committee of Inter- national Exhibitions of Brussels, Paris, Buenos Aires, Rome and the Franco- I Sculpture (in tart} • British Exhibition, London. Author of History of "Punch"; British Portrait] ch~if >> , -,
Painting to the Opening of the iQth Century; Works of G. F. Watts, R.A.; British 'naKesPeare. Portraits. Sculpture and Sculptors of To-Day; Henriette Ronner; &c.
M. Ja. MORRIS JASTROW, PH.D. f
Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania. Author of Religion -\ Shamash of the Babylonians and Assyrians; &c.
M. 0. B. C. MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. r
Reader in Ancient History in London University. Lecturer in Greek in Birmingham -! Salamis; University, 1905-1908. [ Samos (in part).
M. P.* LEON JACQUES MAXIME PRINET. r
Auxiliary of the Institute of France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences).-^ St Nectaire; Author of L' Industrie du sel en Franche-Comte. (_ St Pol, Counts of.
M. T. H. M. TH. HOUTSMA. f
Professor of Semitic Languages in the University of Utrecht. \ Seljuks.
0. A. OSMUND AIRY, M.A., LL.D. f
H.M Inspector ol Schools and Inspector of Training Colleges, Board of Education, J
London. Author of Louis XIV. and the English Restoration; Charles II.; &c. 1 SnaitesDury, 1st Earl of. Editor of the Lauderdale Papers ; &c. l_
f St Petersburg (in part) ; P. A. K. PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN. I Sakhalin (in part) ;
See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, PRINCE, P. A. Samara: Government (in part);
Samarkand: City (in part) ; [ Saratov: Government (in part).
P. C. M. PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc., LL.D. r
Secretary of the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in Com- J parative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891. | "eX- Author of Outlines of Biology ; &c. [
P. G. PERCY GARDNER, LL.D., F.S.A., D.LiTT. /
See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY. \ Scopas.
P. G. K. PAUL GEORGE KONODY. r
Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of the Artist. -I Sculpture (in tiarl) Author of The Art of Walter Crane ; Velasquez, Life and Work ; &c. 1
P. St. PERCY SOMERS TYRINGHAM STEPHENS, J.P. f
Contributor to the Badminton Magazine. \ Shooting.
P. Vi. PAUL VINOGRADOFF, D.C.L., LL.D. J
See the biographical article: VINOGRADOFF, PAUL. "^Serfdom.
P. Wa. SIR PHILLIP WATTS, K.C.B., F.R.S., LL.D.
Director of Naval Construction for the British Navy. Chairman of the Federation J Smp: Hlstory smc'e tlte lmen- of Shipbuilders. Naval Architect and Director of War Shipbuilding Department ] ti°n of Steamships; of Sir W. G. Armstrong, Whitworth & Co., Ltd., 1885-1901. [ Shipbuilding.
R. Ad. ROBERT ADAMSON, LL.D. /
See the biographical article : ADAMSON, ROBERT. \ SChellmg (in part).
R. A. S. M. ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A. f Samaria'
St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Ex-i c ploration Fund. \ Shechem.
R. A. W. COLONEL ROBERT ALEXANDER WAHAB, C.B., C.M.G., C.I.E. f
Formerly H.M. Commissioner, Aden Boundary Delimitation. Served with Tirah J Expeditionary Force, 1897-1898, and on the Anglo-Russian Boundary Com- 1 Sana. mission, Pamirs, 1895. [
R. C. C. RICHARD COPLEY CHRISTIE. /c.«u.,,. c * A
See the biographical article: CHRISTIE, RICHARD COPLEY. \ sc
R. D. H. ROBERT DREW HICKS, M.A. f s / • ,, t}
Fellow, formerly Lecturer in Classics, Trinity College, Cambridge. \ P
R. G. RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D. fSarpi, Paolo;
See the biographical article: GARNETT, RICHARD. \ Satire.
R. I. P. REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S. f scornion.
Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. \
xii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
R. J. M. RONALD JOHN McNEiLL, M.A.
Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the St James's Gazette (London).
St John, Oliver;
St Leger, Sir Anthony;
Scroggs, Sir William; Serope Family; Ship-money; Shrewsbury, Duke of.
R. L.* RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S.
Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of I Seal (in part); Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum; The Deer~\ Serow; Sheep (in part}. of all Lands; The Game Animals of Africa; &c. ' I
R. L. A. SIR REGINALD LAURENCE ANTROBUS, K.C.M.G. f
Crown Agent for the Colonies, London. Assistant Under-Secretary of State for-1, St Helena (in part). the Colonies, 1898-1909. I
R. N. B. ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). c
Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: The c.),,.,*...! Uanni Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, J. ° 8U> "8 D 1613-1725; Slavonic Europe: The Political History of Poland and Russia from Shanrov, Peter. 1460 to 1796 ; &c.
R. P.* ROBERT PEELE. f shaft-sinkinir
Professor of Mining in Columbia University, New York. \ W DKm6-
R. S. C. ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.LITT. f
Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester. J Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville 1 and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects. [
R. W. ROBERT WALLACE, F.R.S. (Edin.), F.L.S.
Professor of Agriculture and Rural Economy at Edinburgh University, and Garton.
Lecturer on Colonial and Indian Agriculture. Professor of Agriculture, R.A.C., I gha«n (I'M -b<iri\
Cirencester, 1882-1885. Author of Farm Live Stock of Great Britain; The Agri-}
culture and Rural Economy of Australia and New Zealand; Farming Industries of
Cape Colony; &c.
S. A. C. STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A. r
Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Samson; Samuel; Cambridge. Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Author of Glossary o/J Samuel, Books of; Aramaic Inscriptions; The Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Saul; Serpent-worship. Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c. L
S. M. SIMON NEWCOMB, LL.D., D.Sc. f Saturn* Planet
See the biographical article: NEWCOMB, SIMON. \
T. As. THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LiTT.
Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member, of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of The Classical Topo- graphy of the Roman Campagna.
Salerno; Sardinia; Sassari; Satrlcum; Saturnia; Segesta; Segusio; Selinus; Sessa Aurunca;
Scveriana, Via.
T. A. A. THOMAS ANDREW ARCHER, M.A. f „
Author of The Crusade of Richard I. ; &c. \ Salvian.
T. A. I. THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM M.A., LL.D. / ^ ^^ ( . p(,r()
Trinity College, Dublin. \
T. Ba. SIR THOMAS BARCLAY, M.P. r
Member of the Institute of International Law. Officer of the Legion of Honour. I c.,,.,1, Author of Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for Black- 1 burn, 1910.
T. C. A. SIR THOMAS CLIFFORD ALLBUTT, K.C.B., M.A., M.D., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. r
Regius Professor of Physic in the University of Cambridge, and Fejlow of Gonville J Semmelweiss Ignatz and Caius College. Physician to Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge. Editor of | Systems of Medicine. I
T. P. REV. THOMAS FOWLER, M.A., D.D., LL.D. (1832-1904). r
President of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, 1881-1904. Honorary Fellow of chaftpshurv ^rd Earl of
Lincoln College. Professor of Logic, 1873-1888. Vice-Chancellor of the University J
of Oxford, 1899-1901. Author of Elements of Deductive Logic; Shaftesbury and (tn Parl>-
Hutcheson ; &c.
T. G. C. THOMAS GILBERT CARVER, M.A., K.C. (1848-1906). f
Formerly Judge of County Courts. Author of On the Law relating to the Carriage J. Salvage. of Goods by Sea. [
T. K. THOMAS KIRKUP, M.A., LL.D. f Saint-Simon, Comte de
Author of An Inquiry into Socialism; Primer of Socialism; &c. ~|_ (,'n part).
T. K. C. REV. THOMAS KELLY CHEYNE, D.LITT., D.C.L., D.D. /Seraphim.
See the biographical article: CHEYNE, T. K. \
T. L. H. SIR THOMAS LITTLE HEATH, K.C.B., D.Sc. f
Assistant Secretary to the Treasury. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cam- ^ Serenus Of Antissa. bridge. Author of Treatise on Conic Sections ; &c.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Xlll
Th. H. T.T. T. W. F.
T. W. R. D.
W. A. B. C.
W. A. D.
W. A. P.
W. Ba.
W. C. D. W.
W. E. A. A.
W. E. Ho. W. Fr.
W. F. K. W. Hu.
W. H. Be.
W. H. F. W. H. Ha.
W. L. F. W. L. G.
W. L.-W.
THEODOR NSLDEKE.
See the biographical article: NOLDEKE, THEODOR.
SIR TRAVERS Twiss, K.C., D.C.L., F.R.S.
See the biographical article: Twiss, SIR TRAVERS.
| Semitic Languages, I Sea Laws.
THOMAS WILLIAM Fox. r
Professor of Textiles in the University of Manchester. Author of Mechanics ofJ, Shuttle. Weaving. [
THOMAS WILLIAM RHYS DAVIDS, LL.D., PH.D.
Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester University. President of the Pali SSnchi; Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of the i Sariputta; Royal Asiatic Society, 1885-^1902. Author of Buddhism; Sacred Books of the Sasana Vamsa
Buddhists ; Early Buddhism ; Buddhist India ; Dialogues of the Buddha ; &c.
REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D.
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's College, Lampeter, 1880^1881. Author of Guide du Haul Dauphine; The Range of the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1881 ; &c.
WILLIAM ARCHIBALD DUNNING, PH.D., LL.D.
Lieber Professor of History and Political Philosophy, Columbia University, New York. Author of Essays on the Civil War and Reconstruction ; A History of Political ' Theories.
WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A.
Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, . Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; &c.
WILLIAM BACHER, PH.D.
Professor of Biblical Science at the Rabbinical Seminary, Budapest.
St Gall: Canton; St Gall:
Town; St Gotthard Pass; St Moritz; Sarnen; Saussure, Horace Benedict de; Savoie; Schaffhausen: Canton; Schaffhausen: Town; Scheuchzer, Johann; Schwyz; Sempach.
Sherman, John.
:St John of Jerusalem, Order of; Schleswig-Holstein Question.
Shammai.
WILLIAM CECIL DAMPIER WHETHAM, M.A., F.R.S. Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. Recent Development of Physical Science ; &c.
Author of Theory of Solution ; J. Science.
WILLIAM EDMUND ARMYTAGE AXON, LL.D. r
Formerly Deputy Chief Librarian of the Manchester Free Libraries. On Literary I coif..-.! Staff of Manchester Guardian, 1874-1905. Member of the Gorsedd, with the bardic 1 name of Manceinion. Author of Annals of Manchester; &c.
Director of the J Sea-Serpent (in part).
WILLIAM EVANS HOYLE, M.A., D.Sc., F.Z.S., M.R.C.S.
Christ Church, Oxford. Director of the National Museum of Wales. Manchester Museum, 1889-1899.
WILLIAM FREAM, LL.D. (d. 1906). f
Formerly Lecturer on Agricultural Entomology, University of Edinburgh, and J Sheep (in part). Agricultural Correspondent of The Times.
WINIFRED F. KNOX.
Author of The Court of a Saint.
J Saladin.
REV. WILLIAM HUNT, M.A., Lrrr.D.
President of the Royal Historical Society, 1905-1909. Author of History of the e-_i-w ci, i English Church, 597-1066; The Church of England in the Middle Ages; Political'] Bley> slr J- History of England, 1760-1801.
WILLIAM HENRY BENNETT, M.A., D.D., D.LITT.
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and
Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, and
College, Sheffield. Author of Religion of the Post-Exilic Prophets; &c.
SIR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S.
See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H.
Hackney Colleges, London. J Lecturer in Hebrew at Firth 1
Seth.
t
Seal (in part).
r
WILLIAM HENRY HADOW, M.A., Mus.Doc.
Principal of Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Formerly Fellow and Tutor c.i.iihai-1 of Worcester College, Oxford. Member of Council, Royal College of Music. Editor 1 " of Oxford History of Music. Author of Studies in Modern Music ; &c.
WALTER LYNWOOD FLEMING, A.M., PH.D. c
Professor of History in Louisiana State University. Editor of Documentary History J Secession. of Reconstruction ; &c.
WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A. r
Professor of History at Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly Beit] St John: Canada; Lecturer in Colonial History at Oxford University. Editor of Acts of the Privy] St Pierre and Miquelon. Council (Colonial Series) ; Canadian Constitutional Development.
SIR WILLIAM LEE- WARNER, M.A., G.C.S.I. C
Member of the Council of India. Formerly Secretary in the Political and Secret J Sayyid Ahmad Khan Sir Department of the India Office. Author of Life of the Marquis of Dalhousie ; j Memoirs of Field-Marshal Sir Henry Wylie Norman ; &c. I
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
XIV
W. M. WILLIAM MINTO, M.A.
See the biographical article : MINTO, WILLIAM.
W. M. R. WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI.
See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE G.
W. P. A. LizuT.-CoLONEL WILLIAM PATRICK ANDERSON, M.lNST.C.E., F.R.G.S.
Chief-Engineer, Department of Marine and Fisheries of Canada. Member of the Geographic Board of Canada. Past President of Canadian Society of Civil Engineers.
W. R. S. WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D.
See the biographical article: SMITH, W. R.
W. T. Ca. WILLIAM THOMAS CALMAN, D.Sc., F.Z.S.
Assistant in charge of Crustacea, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. Author of " Crustacea," in a Treatise on Zoology, edited by Sir E. Ray Lankester.
W. W. WILLIAM WALLACE.
See the biographical article: WALLACE, WILLIAM (1844-1897).
W. W. R.* WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, Lie. THEOL.
Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. Author of Die Doppelehe des Landgrafen Philipp von Hessen.
Scott, Sir Walter (in part).
f Sebastiano del Piombo; I Shelley.
St Lawrence: River.
( Salt: Ancient History and \ Religious Symbolism.
Shrimp.
Schopenhauer (in part). Saragossa, Councils of.
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
St Vitus's Dance.
Sal Ammoniac.
Salicylic Acid.
Salisbury.
Salt Lake City.
Saltpetre.
Salt.
Salvador.
Salvation Army.
Salzburg.
Samoa.
Samoyedes.
Sanctuary.
San Francisco.
Santo Domingo.
Sarsaparilla.
Saskatchewan.
Savannah.
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.
Saxe-Meiningen.
Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach.
Saxony.
Scarlet Fever.
Schleswig-Holstein.
Scilly Isles.
Scipio.
Scrophulariaceae.
Scurvy.
Seal-Fisheries.
Seattle.
Sea-Urchin.
Sedition.
Seismometer.
Selenium.
Selkirkshire.
Senna.
Sennar.
Sequoia.
Serjeant.
Servo-Bulgarian War.
Settlement.
Severn.
Sewing Machines.
Sextant.
Seychelles.
Shadow.
Shakers.
Shamash.
Sheffield.
Shell-heaps.
Shell-money.
Sheridan.
Shetland.
Shoe.
Shorthand (modern).
Shropshire.
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XXIV
SAINTE-CLAIRE DEVILLE, ETIENNE HENRI (1818-1881), | French chemist, was born on the nth of March 1818 in the island of St Thomas, West Indies, where his father was French consul. Together with his elder brother Charles he was educated in Paris at the College Rollin. In 1844, having graduated as doctor of medicine and doctor of science, he was appointed to organize the new faculty of science at Besancon, where he acted as dean and professor of chemistry from 1845 to 1851. Return- ing to Paris in the latter year he succeeded A. J. Balard at the Ecole Normale, and in 1859 became professor at the Sorbonne in place of J. B. A. Dumas, for whom he had begun tc lecture in 1853. He died at Boulogne-sur-Seine on the ist of July 1881.
He began his experimental work in 1841 with investigations of oil of turpentine and tolu balsam, in the course of which he discovered toluene. But his most important work was in inorganic and thermal chemistry. In 1849 he discovered anhydrous nitric acid (nitrogen pentoxide), a substance interesting as the first obtained of the so-called " anhydrides " of the monobasic acids. In 1855, ignorant of what Wohler had done ten years previously, he succeeded in obtaining metallic aluminium, and ultimately he devised a method by which the metal could be prepared on a large scale by the aid of sodium, the manufacture of which he also developed. With H. J. Debray (1827-1888) he worked at the platinum metals, his object being on the one hand to prepare them pure, and on the other to find a suitable metal for the standard metre for the Inter- national Metric Commission then sitting at Paris. With L. J. Troost (b. 1825) he devised a method for determining vapour densities at temperatures up to 1400° C., and, partly with F. Wohler, he investigated the allotropic forms of silicon and boron. The artificial preparation of minerals, especially of apatite and isomor- phous minerals and of crystalline oxides, was another subject in which he made many experiments. But his best known contribution to general chemistry is his work on the phenomena of reversible reactions, which he comprehended under a general theory of " dis- sociation." He first took up the subject about 1857, and it was in the course of his investigations on it that he devised the apparatus known as the " Deville hot and cold tube."
His brother, CHARLES JOSEPH SAINTE- CLAIRE DEVILLE (1814-1876), geologist and meteorologist, was born in St Thomas on the 26th of February 1814. Having attended at the ficole des Mines in Paris, he assisted Elie de Beaumont in the chair of geology at the College de France from 1855 until he succeeded him in 1874. He made researches on volcanic phenomena, t especially on the gaseous emanations. He investigated also the variations of temperature in the atmosphere and ocean.' He died at Paris on the loth of October 1876.
His published works include: fctudes geologiques sur les ties de Teneri/e et de Fogo (1848); Voyage geologique aux Antilles el aux ties de Tenerife et de Fogo (1848-1859); Recherches sur les princi- paux phenomenes de meteorologie et de physique generate aux Antilles (1849); Sur les variations periodiques de la temperature (1866), and Coup d'ceil historique sur la geologie (1878).
xxrv. i
ST ELMO'S FIRE, the glow accompanying the slow discharge of electricity to earth from the atmosphere. This discharge, which is identical with the " brush " discharge of laboratory experiments, usually appears as a tip of light on the extremities of pointed objects such as church towers, the masts of ships, or even the fingers of the outstretched hand: it is commonly accompanied by a crackling or fizzing noise. St Elmo's fire is most frequently observed at low levels through the winter season during and after snowstorms.
The name St Elmo is an Italian corruption through Sant' Ermo of St Erasmus, a bishop, during the reign of Domitian, of Formiae, Italy, who was broken on the wheel about the 2nd of June 304. He has ever been the patron saint of Mediterranean sailors, who regard St Elmo's fire as the visible sign of his guar- dianship. The phenomenon was known to the ancient Greeks, and Pliny in his Natural History states that when there were two lights sailors called them Castor and Pollux and invoked them as gods. To English sailors St Elmo's fires were known as " corposants " (Ital. corpo santo).
See Hazlitt's edition of Brand's Antiquities (1005) under " Castor and Pollux." .
ST EMILION, a town of south-western France, in the depart- ment of Gironde, 25 m. from the right bank of the Dordogne and 27 m. E.N.E. of Bordeaux by rail. Pop. (1906), town, 1091; commune, 3546. The town derives its name from a hermit who lived here in the 7th and 8th centuries. Pictur- esquely situated on the slope of a hill, the town has remains of ramparts of the I2th and i3th centuries, with ditches hewn in the rock, and several medieval buildings. Of these the chief is the parish, once collegiate, church of the I2th and i3th centuries. A Gothic cloister adjoins the church. A fine belfry (i2th, i3th and isth centuries) commanding the town is built on the terrace, beneath which are hollowed in the rock the ora- tory and hermitage of St Emilion, and adjoining them an ancient monolithic church of considerable dimensions. Remains of a monastery of the Cordeliers (isth and i7th centuries), of a building (isth century)known as the Palais Cardinal, and a square keep (the chief relic of a stronghold founded by Louis VIII.) are also to be seen. Disused stone quarries in the side of the hill are used as dwellings by the inhabitants. St Emilion is celebrated for its wines. Its medieval importance, due to the pilgrimages to the tomb of the saint and to the commerce in its wines, began to decline towards the end of the I3th century owing to the foundation of Libourne. In 1272 it was the first of the towns of Guyenne to join the confederation headed by Bordeaux.
SAINTE-PALAYE— ST ETIENNE
SAINTE-PALAYE, JEAN BAPTISTE LA.CURNE (or LACXJRNE) DE (1697-1781), French scholar, was born at Auxerre on the 6th of June 1697. His father, Edme, had been gentleman of the bed-chamber to the duke of Orleans, brother of Louis XIV. Sainte-Palaye had a twin brother to whom he was greatly attached, refusing to marry so as not to be separated from him. For some time he ' held the same position under the regent Orleans as his father had under the duke of Orleans. He had received a thorough education in Latin and Greek, and had a taste for history. In 1724 he had been elected an associate of the Academic des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, merely from his reputation, as nothing had been written by him before that date. From this time he devoted himself exclusively to the work of this society. After having published numerous memoirs on Roman history, he began a series of studies on the chroniclers of the middle ages for the Historiens des Gaules et de la France (edited by Dom Bouquet): Raoul Glaber, Helgaud, the Gesta of Louis VII., the chronicle of Morigny, Rigord and his con- tinuator, William le Breton, the monk of St Denis, Jean de Venette, Froissart and the Jouvencel. He made two journeys into Italy with his brother, the first in 1739-1740, accompanied by his compatriot, the president Charles de Brosses, who related many humorous anecdotes about the two brothers, particularly about Jean Baptiste, whom he called " the bilious Sainte- Palaye!" On returning from this tour he saw one of Join- ville's manuscripts at the house of the senator Fiorentini, well known in the history of the text of this pleasing memorialist. The manuscript was bought for the king in 1741 and is still at the Bibliotheque nationale. After the second journey (1749) Lacurne published a letter to de Brosses, on Le Go&t dans les arts (1751). In this he showed that he was not only attracted by manuscripts, but that he could see and admire works of art. In 1 759 he published the first edition of his Memoires sur I'ancienne chevalerie, consideree comme un etablissement politique et mililaire, for which unfortunately he only used works of fiction and ancient stories as sources, neglecting the heroic poems which would have shown him the nobler aspects of this institution so soon corrupted by " courteous " manners; a second edition appeared at the time of his death (3 vols. 1781, 3rd ed. 1826). He prepared an edition of the works of Eustache Deschamps, which was never published, and also made a collection of more than a hundred volumes of extracts from ancient authors relating to French antiquities and the French language of the middle ages. His Glossaire de la languefranc.aise was ready in 1 7 56, and a prospectus had been published, but the great length of the work prevented him finding a publisher. It remained in manuscript for more than a century. In 1 764 a collection of his manuscripts was bought by the government and after his death were placed in the king's library; they are still there (fonds Moreau), with the exception of some which were given to the marquess of Paulmy in exchange, and were later placed in the Arsenal. Lacurne de Sainte-Palaye ceased work about 1771; the death of his brother was greatly felt by him, he became childish, and died on the ist of March 1781.
Sainte-Palaye had been a member of the Academic Francaise since 1758. His life was written for this Acadimie by Chamfort and for the Academic des Inscriptions by Dupuy; both works are of no value. See, however, the biography of Lacurne, with a list of his published works and those in manuscript, at the beginning ^of the tenth and last volume of the Dictionnaire histonque de I'ancien langage franc.ois, ou tlossaire de la langue franfoise depuis son origine jusquau siecle de Louis XIV., published by Louis Favre (1875- 1882).
SAINTES, a town of western France, capital of an arrondisse- ment in the department of Charente-Infeiieure, 47 m. S.E. of La Rochelle by the railway from Nantes to Bordeaux. Pop. (1906), town, 13,744; commune, 19,025. Saintes is pleasantly situated on the left bank of the Charente, which separates it from its suburb of Les Dames. It is of interest for its Roman remains, of which the best preserved is the triumphal arch of Germanicus, dating from the reign of Tiberius. This formerly stood on a Roman bridge destroyed in 1843, when it was removed and reconstructed on the right bank of the river. Ruins of baths and of an amphitheatre are also to be seen. The amphitheatre,
larger than that of Nlmes, and in area surpassed only by the Coliseum, dates probably from the close of the ist or the beginning of the 2nd century and was capable of holding 20,000 spectators. A Roman building known as the Capitol was destroyed after the capture of the town from the English by Charles of Alenfon, brother of Philip of Valois, in 1330, and its site is occupied by a hospital. Saintes was a bishop's see till 1790; the cathedral of St Peter, built in the first half of the i2th century, was rebuilt in the isth century, and again after it had been almost destroyed by the Huguenots in 1 568. The interior has now an unattractive appearance. The tower (isth century) is 236 ft. high. The church of St Eutropius (founded at the close of the 6th century, rebuilt in the nth, and had its nave destroyed in the Wars of Religion) stands above a very interesting well-lighted crypt — the largest in France after that of Chartres — adorned with richly sculptured capitals and containing the tomb of St Eutropius (4th or 5th century). The fine stone spire dates from the 1 5th century. Notre-Dame, a splendid example of the architecture of the nth and i2th centuries, with a noble clock- tower, is no longer devoted to religious purposes. The old h&tel de ville (i6th and i8th centuries) contains a library, and the present h6tel de ville a museum. Bernard Palissy, the porcelain- maker, has a statue in the town, where he lived from 1542 to 1562. Small vessels ascend the river as far as Saintes, which carries on trade in grain, brandy and wine, has iron foundries, works of the state railway, and manufactures earthenware, tiles, &c.
Saintes (Mediolanum or Mediolanium) , the capital of the Santones, was a flourishing; town before Caesar's conquest of Gaul ; in the middle ages it was capital of the Saintonge. Christianity was introduced by St Eutropius, its first bishop, in the middle of the 3rd century. Charlemagne rebuilt its cathedral. The Normans burned the town in 845 and 854. Richard Coeur de Lion fortified himself within its walls against his father Henry II., who captured it after a destructive siege. In 124^2 St Louis defeated the English under its walls and was received into the town. It was not, however, till the reign of Charles V. that Saintes was permanentjy recovered from the English. The Protestants did great damage during the Wars of Religion.
ST 6TIENNE, an industrial town of east-central France, capital of the department of Loire, 310 m. S.S.E. of Paris and 36 m. S.S.W. of Lyons by rail. Pop. (1906), town, 130,940; commune, 146,788. St Etienne is situated on the Furens, which flows through it from S.E. to N.W., partly underground, and is an important adjunct to the silk manufacture. The town is uni- formly built, its principal feature being the straight thoroughfare nearly 4 m. long which traverses it from N. to S. The chief of the squares is the Place Marengo, which has a statue of F. Gamier, the explorer, and is overlooked by the town hall and the prefecture, both modern. The church of St Etienne dates from the isth century, and the Romanesque church of the abbey of Valbenoite is on the S.E. outskirts of the town. A valuable collec- tion of arms and armour, a picture gallery, industrial collections, and a library with numerous manuscripts are in the Palais des Arts. St Etienne is the seat of a prefect, and has an important school of mining, and schools of music, chemistry and dyeing, &c.
The town owes its importance chiefly to the coal-basin which extends between Firminy and Rive-de-Gier over an area 20 m. long by S m. wide, and is second only to those of Nord and Pas-de-Calais in France. There are concessions giving employment to some 18,000 workmen and producing annually between 3,000,000 and 4,000,000 tons. The mineral is of two kinds — smelting coal, said to be the best in France, and gas coal. There are manufactures of ribbons, trimmings and other goods made from silk and mixtures of cotton and silk. This industry dates from the early I7th century, is carried on chiefly in small factories (electricity supplying the motive power), and employs at its maximum some 50,000 hands. The attendant industry of dyeing is carried on on a large scale. The manufacture of steel arid iron and of heavy iron goods such as armour-plating occupies about 3000 workmen, and about half that number are employed in the production of ironmongery generally. Weaving machinery, cycles, automobiles and agricultural imple- ments are also made. The manufacture of fire-arms, carried on at the national factory under the direction of artillery officers, employs at busy times more than 10,000 men, and can turn out 480,000 rifles in the year. Private firms, employing 4500 hands, make both military rifles and sporting-guns, revolvers, &c. To these industries must be added the manufacture of elastic fabrics, glass, cartridges, liqueurs, hemp-cables, &c.
ST EUSTATIUS— ST GALL
At the close of the I2th century St Etienne was a parish of the Pays de Gier belonging to the abbey of Valbenoite. By the middle of the i4th century the coal trade had reached a certain development, and at the beginning of the isth century Charles VII. permitted the town to erect fortifications. The manufacture of fire-arms for the state was begun at St Etienne under Francis I. and was put under the surveillance of state inspectors early in the i8th century. In 1789 the town was producing at the rate of 12,000 muskets per annum; between September 1794 and May 1796 they delivered over 170,000; and 100,000 was the annual average throughout the period of the empire. The first railways opened in France were the line between St Etienne and Andrezieux on the Loire in 1828 and that between St Etienne and Lyons in 1831. In 1856 St Etienne became the administrative centre of the department instead of Montbrison. ST EUSTATIUS and SABA, two islands in the Dutch West Indies. St Eustatius lies 12 m. N.W. of St Kitts in 17° 50' N. and 62° 40' W. It is 8 sq. m. in area and is composed of several volcanic hills and intervening valleys. It contains Orangetown, situated on an open roadstead on the W., with a small export trade in yams and sweet potatoes. Pop. (1908) 1283.
A few miles to the N.W. is the island of SABA, 5 sq. m. in extent. It consists of a single volcanic cone rising abruptly from the sea to the height of nearly 2800 ft. The town, Bottom, standing on the floor of an old crater, can only be approached from the shore 800 ft. below, by a series of steps cut in the solid rock and known as the " Ladder." The best boats in the Caribbees are built here; the wood is imported and the vessels, when complete, are lowered over the face of the cliffs. Pop. (1908) 2294. The islands form part of the colony of Curacao (<?.».).
SAINT-EVREMOND, CHARLES DE MARGUETEL DE SAINT-DENIS, SEIGNEUR DE (1610-1703), was born at Saint- Denis-le-Guast, near Coutances, the seat of his family in Normandy, on the ist of April 1610. He was a pupil of the Jesuits at the College de Clermont (now Louis-le- Grand), Paris; then a student at Caen. For a time he studied law at the College d'Harcourt. He soon, however, took to arms, and in 1629 went with Marshal Bassompierre to Italy. He served through great part of the Thirty Years' War, distinguishing himself at the siege of Landrecies (1637), when he was made captain. During his campaigns he studied the works of Montaigne and the Spanish and Italian languages. In 1639 he met Gassendi in Paris, and became one of his disciples. He was present at Rocroy, at Nordlingen, and at Lerida. For a time he was person- ally attached to Conde, but offended him by a satirical remark and was deprived of his command in the prince's guards in 1648. During the Fronde, Saint-Evremond was a steady royalist. The duke of Candale (of whom he has left a very severe portrait) gave him a command in Guienne, and Saint-Evremond, who had reached the grade of marechal de camp, is said to have saved 50,000 livres in less than three years. He was one of the numerous victims involved in the fall of Fouquet. His letter to Marshal Crequi on the peace of the Pyrenees, which is said to have been discovered by Colbert's agents at the seizure of Fouquet 's papers, seems a very inadequate cause for his disgrace. Saint- Evremond fled to Holland and to England, where he was kindly received by Charles II. and was pensioned. After James II. 's flight to France Saint-Evremond was invited to return, but he declined. Hortense Mancini, the most attractive of Mazarin's attractive group of nieces, came to England in 1670, and set up a salon for love-making, gambling and witty conversation, and here Saint-Evremond was for many years at home. He died on the 2gth of September 1703 and was buried in West- minster Abbey, where his monument still is in Poet's Corner close to that of Prior.
Saint-Evremond never authorized the printing of any of his works during his lifetime, though Barbin in 1668 published an unauthorized collection. But he empowered Des Maizeaux to publish his works after his death, and they were published in London (2 vols., 1705), and often reprinted. His masterpiece in irony is the so-called Conversation du marechal d'Hocquincourt avec Ic pere Canaye (the latter a Jesuit and Saint-Evremond's master
at school), which has been frequently classed with the Lettres provinciates.
His (Euvres melees, edited from the MSS. by Silvestre and Des Maizeaux, were printed by Jacob Tonson (London. 1705 2 vols • 2nd ed., 3 vols., 1709), with a notice by Des Maizeaux. His corre- spondence with Ninon de Lenclos, whose fast friend he was was published m 1752; La Comedie des academistes, written in 1641 was printed in 1650. Modern editions of his works are by Hippeau .Pans 1852) C.Giraud (Paris, 1865), and a selection (1881) with a notice by M. de Lescure.
ST FLORENTIN, a town of north-central France, in the depart- ment of Yonne, 37 m. S.E. of Sens on the Paris-Lyon-Mediter- ranee railway. Pop. (1906) 2303. It stands on a hill on the right bank of the Armance, half a mile from its confluence with the Armancon and the canal of Burgundy. In the highest part of the town stands the church, begun in the latter half of the 1 5th century, and though retaining the Gothic form, with great flying buttresses, is mainly in the Renaissance style. It is approached through a narrow alley up a steep flight of steps and contains a fine Holy Sepulchre in bas-relief and a choir- screen and stained glass of admirable Renaissance workmanship. The nave, left incomplete, was restored and finished between 1857 and 1862. The market-gardens of St Florentin produce large quantities of asparagus. The town stands on the site of the Roman military post Castrodunum, the sceneof the martyrdom in the 3rd century of Saints Florentin and Hilaire, round whose tomb it grew up. The abbey established here in the gth century afterwards became a priory of the abbey of St Germain at Auxerre. The town and its temtory belonged, under the Merovingians, to Burgundy, and in later times to the counts of Champagne, from whom it passed to the kings of France. Louis XV. raised it from the rank of viscounty to that of county and bestowed it on Louis Phelypeaux, afterwards Due de la Vrilliere.
ST FLOUR, a town of south-central France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Cantal, situated at a height of 2900 ft. on a basaltic plateau overlooking the Lander, a tributary of the Truyere, 47 m. E.N.E. of Aurillac by rail. Pop. (1906) 4090. The streets are dark and narrow, but the town has spacious promenades established in the i8th century. St Flour grew up round the tomb of St Florus, the apostle of Auvergne, who died there in the 4th century. The abbey founded there about the beginning of the nth century became in 1317 an episcopal chapter, and the town is still the seat of a bishopric. The cathedral (1396-1466) is the principal building. The manufacture of coarse woollen fabrics, of earthenware and candles is carried on. A few miles S.E. of the town the gorge of the Truyere is spanned by the fine railway viaduct of Garabit over 600 yds. long and at a height of 400 ft. above the river.
ST GALL (Ger. St Gallen), one of the cantons of north- east Switzerland, on the border of the Austrian province of the Vorarlberg and of the independent principality of Liechtenstein. It entirely surrounds the canton of Appenzell, which, like a great part of this canton, formerly belonged to the abbots of St Gall, while the " enclave " of Horn is in the canton of Thurgau.
Its area is 779-3 sq. m., of which 710-1 sq. m. are reckoned " pro- ductive, forests covering 157-1 sq. m. and vineyards 1-8 sq m while of the remainder 2-8 sq. m. are occupied by glaciers The altitude above the sea-level varies from 1306 ft. (the lake of Constance) to 10 667 ft (the Rmgelspitz). The canton includes portions of the lake of Constance (21 1 sq. m.), of the Walensee (rather over 7 sq. m.), and of the lake of Zurich (4 sq. m.), and several small lakes wholly within its limits. Hilly in its N. region, the height gradually increases towards the S. border, while to its S. W. and E extend considerable alluvial plains on the banks of the Linth and of the Rhine. The two rivers just named form in part its frontiers the principal stream within the canton being the Thur (as regards its upper course), with the middle reach of its principal affluent the bitter, both forming part of the Rhine basin. It has ports on the lake of Constance (Rorschach) and of Zurich (Rapperswil), as well as Weesen and Walenstadt on the Walensee, while the watering place of Kagatz (ff.tr.) is supplied with hot mineral waters from Pfafers. 1 he mam railway lines from Zurich past Sargans for Coire, and from Sargans past Altstatten and Rorschach for Constance.skirtitsborders while the capital is on the direct railway line from Zurich past Wil to Rorschach, and communicates by rail with Appenzell and with hrauenfeld. In 1900 the population of the canton was 250 285 of whom 243,358 were German-speaking, 5300 Italian-speaking and 710 French-speaking, while there were 150,412 " Catholics " (whether
ST GALL— SAINT-GAUDENS
Roman or " Old "), 99,114 Protestants and 556 Jews (mostly in the town of St Gall). Its capital is St Gall, the other most populous places being Tablat (pop. 12,590), Rorschach (9140), Altstatten (8724), Straubenzell (8090), Gossau (6055) and Wattwil (4971). In the southern and more Alpine portion of the canton the inhabitants mainly follow pastoral pursuits. In 1896 the number of " alps " or mountain pastures in the canton amounted to 304, capable of sup- porting 21,744 cows, and of an estimated total value of nearly 14 million francs. In the central and northern regions agriculture is generally combined with manufactures.
The canton is one of the most industrial in Switzerland. Cotton- spinning is widely spread, though cloth-weaving has declined. But the characteristic industry is the manufacture, mostly by machines, of muslin, embroidery and lace. It is reckoned that the value of the embroideries and lace exported from the canton amounts to about one-seventh of the total value of the exports from Switzerland. The canton is divided into fifteen administrative districts, which comprise ninety-three communes.
The existing constitution dates from 1890. The legislature or Grossrat is elected by the communes, each commune of 1500 inhabitants or less having a right to one member, and as many more as the divisor 1 500, or fraction over 7 50, justifies. Members hold office for three years. For the election of the seven members of the executive or Regierungsrat, who also hold office for three years, all the communes form a single electoral circle. The two members of the federal Sidnderat are named by the legislature, while the thirteen members of the federal Nationalrat are chosen by a popular vote. The right of " facultative referendum " or of " initiative " as to legislative projects belongs to any 4000 citizens, but in case of the revision of the cantonal constitution 10,000 must sign the demand. The canton of St Gall was formed in 1803 and was augmented by many districts that had belonged since 1798 to the canton Linth or Glarus — the upper Toggenburg, Sargans (held since 1483 by the Swiss), Caster and Uznach (belonging since 1438 to Schwyz and Glarus), Gams (since 1497 the property of the same two members), Werdenberg (owned by Glarus since 1517), Sax (bought by Zurich in 1615), and Rapperswil (since 1712 under the protection of Zurich, Bern and Glarus).
AUTHORITIES. — I. von Arx, Geschichte d. Kant. St Call (3 vols., 1810-1813); G. J. Baumgartner, Geschichte d. schweiz. Freistaates u. Kant. St Gall (3 vols., Zurich and Stuttgart, 1868-1890); H. Fehr, Stoat u. Kirche in St Gall (1899); W. Gotzinger, Die romanischen Namen d. Kant. St Gall (1891); O. Henne am Rhyn, Geschichte d. Kant. St Gall von 1861 (1896); Der Kanton St Gall, 1803-1903 (1903): J- Kuoni, Sagen des Kantons St Gallen (St Gall, 1903); St GaUische Geschichtsquellen, edited by G. Meyer von Kronau; Milteilungen z. vaterldndischen Geschichte (publ. by the Cantonal Hist. Soc., from 1861); Th. Schlatter, Romanische Volksnamen und Venoandtes (St Gall, 1903); T. Schneider, Die Alpwirtschaft im Kanton St Gall (Soleure, 1896); A. Steinmann, Die ostschweizerische Slickerei-Induslrie (Zurich, 1905); Urkundenbuch d. Abtei St Gall, edited by H. Wartmann; H. Wartmann, " Die geschichtliche Entwickelung d. Stadt St Gall bis 1454 " (article in vol. xvi., 1868, of the Archiv f. Schweizer Geschichte), and Franz Weidmann, Geschichte d. Stifts u. Landschaft St Gall (1834). (W. A. B. C.)
ST GALL, capital of the Swiss canton of that name, is situated in the upland valley of the Steinach, 2195 ft. above the sea-level. It is by rail 9 m. S.W. of Rorschach, its port on the lake of Constance, and 53 m. E. of Zurich. The older or central portion of the town retains the air of a small rural capital, but the newer quarters present the aspect of a modern commercial centre. At either extremity considerable suburbs merge in the neighbour- ing towns of Tablat and of Straubenzell. Its chief building is the abbey church of the celebrated old monastery. This has been a cathedral church since 1846. In its present form it was con- structed in 1756-1765. The famous library is housed in the former palace of the abbot, and is one of the most renowned in Europe by reason of its rich treasures of early MSS. and printed books. Other portions of the monastic buildings are used as the offices of the cantonal authorities, and contain the extensive archives both of this monastery and of that of Pfafers. The ancient churches of St Magnus (Old Catholics) and of St Lawrence (Protestant) were restored in the igth century. The town library, which is rich in Reformation and post-Reformation MSS. and books, is in the buildings of the cantonal school. The museum contains antiquarian, historical and natural history collections, while the new museum of industrial art has an
extensive collection of embroideries of all ages and dates. There are a number of fine modern buildings, such as the Bourse. The town is the centre of the Swiss muslin, embroidery and lace trade. About 10,000 persons were in 1900 occupied in and near the town with the embroidery industry, and about 49,000 in the canton. Cold and fogs prevail in winter (though the town is protected against the north wind) , but the heat in summer is rarely intense. In 1900 the population was 33,116 (having just doubled since 1870), of whom almost all were German-speaking, while the Protestants numbered 17,572, the Catholics (Roman or " Old ") 15,006 and the Jews 419.
The town of St Gall owes its origin to St Gall, an Irish hermit, who in 614, built his cell in the thick forest which then covered the site of the future monastery, and lived there, with a few companions, till his death in 640. Many pilgrims later found their way to his cell, and about the middle of the 8th century the collection of hermits' dwellings was transformed into a regularly organized Benedictine monastery. For the next three centuries this was one of the chief seats of learning and education in Europe. About 954 the monastery and its buildings were surrounded by walls as a protection against the Saracens, and this was the origin of the town. The temporal powers of the abbots vastly increased, while in the i3th century the town obtained divers privileges from the emperor and from the abbot, who about 1205 became a prince of the Empire. In 1311 St Gall became a free imperial city, and about 1353 the gilds, headed by that of the cloth-weavers, obtained the control of the civic government, while in 1415 it bought its liberty from the German king Sigismund. This growing independence did not please the abbot, who struggled long against it and his rebellious subjects in Appenzell, which formed the central portion of his dominions. After the victory of the Appenzellers at the battle of the Stoss (1405) they became (1411) "allies" of the Swiss confederation, as did the town of St Gall a few months later, this connexion becoming an " everlasting " alliance in 1454, while in 1457 the town was finally freed from the abbot. The abbot, too, became (in 1451) the ally of Zurich, Lucerne, Schwyz and Glarus. In 1468 he bought the county of the Toggenburg from the representatives of its counts, a family which had died out in 1436, and in 1487 built a monastery above Rorschach as a place of refuge against the turbulent citizens, who, however, destroyed it in 1489. The Swiss intervened to protect the abbot, who (1490) concluded an alliance with them which'reduced his position almost to that of a " subject district." The townsmen adopted the Reformation in 1524, and this new cause of difference further envenomed their relations with the abbots. Both abbot and town were admitted regularly to the Swiss diet, occupying a higher position than the rest of the " allies " save Bienne, which was on the same footing. But neither succeeded in its attempts to be received a full member of the Confederation, the abbot being too much like a petty monarch and at the same time a kind of " subject " already, while the town could not help much in the way of soldiers. In 1798 and finally in 1805 the abbey was secularized, while out of its dominions (save the Upper Toggen- burg, but with the Altstatten district, held since 1490 by the Swiss) and those of the town the canton Santis was formed, with St Gall as capital. (W. A. B. C.)
SAINT-GAUDENS, AUGUSTUS (1848-1907), American sculptor, was born in Dublin, Ireland, of a French father (a shoemaker by trade), and an Irish mother, Mary McGuinness, on the ist of March 1848, and was taken to America in infancy. He was apprenticed to a cameo-cutter, studying in the schools of the Cooper Union (1861) and the National Academy of Design, New York (1865-1866). His earliest work in sculpture was a bronze bust (1867) of his father, Bernard P. E. Saint-Gaudens. In 1868 he went to Paris and became a pupil of Jouffroyj in the Ecole dcs Beaux- Arts. Two years .later, with his fellow-student Mercie, he went to Italy, where he spent three years. At Rome he executed his statues " Hiawatha " and " Silence." He then settled in New York. In 1874 he made a bust of the statesman, William M. Evarts, and was commissioned to execute a large relief for St Thomas's Church, New York, which brought him
ST GAUDENS— SAINT-GERMAIN
into prominence. His statue of Admiral Farragut, Madison Square, New York, was commissioned in 1878, exhibited at the Paris Salon in 1880 and completed in 1881. It immediately brought the sculptor widespread fame, which was increased by his statue of Lincoln (unveiled 1887), for Lincoln Park, Chicago. In Springfield, Mass., is his " Deacon Chapin," known as " The Puritan." His figure of " Grief " (also known as " Death " and " The Peace of God ") for the Adams (Mrs Henry Adams) Memorial, in Rock Creek Cemetery, Washington, D.C., has been described as " an idealization complete and absolute, the render- ing of a simple, natural fact — a woman in grief — yet with such deep and embracing comprehension that the individual is magnified into a type." His Shaw Memorial in Boston, a monument to Robert G. Shaw, colonel of a negro regiment in the Civil War, was undertaken in i884and completed in 1897; it is a relief in bronze, n ft. by 15, containing many figures of soldiers, led by their young officer on horseback, a female figure in the clouds pointing onward. In 1903 was unveiled his equestrian statue (begun in 1892) to General Sherman, at sgth street and Fifth avenue, New York; preceding the Union commander is a winged figure of " Victory." This work, with others, formed a group at the Paris Exposition of 1900. A bronze copy of his " Amor Caritas " is in the Luxembourg, Paris. Among his other works are relief medallion portraits of Robert Louis Stevenson (in St Giles's Cathedral, Edinburgh) and the French painter Jules Bastien-Lepage; Garfield Memorial, Fairmount Park, Philadelphia; General Logan, Chicago; the Peter Cooper Memorial ; and Charles Stewart Parnell in Dublin. Saint-Gaudens was made an officer of the Legion of Honour and corresponding member of the Institute of France. He died at Cornish, N.H., on the 3rd of August 1907. His monument of Phillips Brooks for Boston was left practically completed. Saint-Gaudens is rightly regarded as the greatest sculptor produced by America, and his work had a most powerful influence on art in the United States. In 1877 he married Augusta F. Homer and left a son, Homer Saint-Gaudens. His brother Louis (b. 1854), also a sculptor, assisted Augustus Saint-Gaudens in some of his works.
See Royal Cortissoz, Augustus Saint-Gaudens (1907) ;Lorado Taft, History of American Sculpture (1903), containing two chapters de- voted to Saint-Gaudens ; Kenyon Cox, Old Masters find New (1905) ; C. Lewis Hind, Augustus Saint-Gaudens (1908).
ST GAUDENS, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Haute-Garonne, i m. from the left bank of the Garonne, 57 m. S.S.W. of Toulouse, on the railway to Tarbes. Pop. (1906), town, 4535; commune, 7120. The church, once collegiate, dates chiefly from the nth and izth centuries, but the main entrance is in the flamboyant Gothic style. The town has sawing-, oil- and flour-mills, manufactures woollen goods, and is a market for horses, sheep and agricultural produce. St Gaudens derives its name from a martyr of the 5th century, at whose tomb a college of canons was afterwards established. It was important as capital of the Nebouzan, as the residence of the bishops of Comminges and for its cloth industry.
SAINT-GELAIS, MELIN DE (1487-1558), French poet, was born at Angouleme on the 3rd of November 1487. He was the natural son of Octavien de St Gelais (1466-1502), afterwards bishop of Angouleme, himself a poet who had translated the Aeneid into French. Melin, who had studied at Bologna and Padua, had the reputation of being doctor, astrologer and musician as well as poet. He returned to France in 1515, and soon gained favour at the court of Francis I. by his skill in light verse. He was made almoner to the Dauphin, abbot of Reclus in the diocese of Troyes and librarian to the king at Fontaine- bleau. He enjoyed immense popularity until the appearance of Du Bellay's Deffense et illustration ... in 1549, where St Gelais was not excepted from the scorn poured on contemporary poets. He attempted to ridicule the innovators by reading aloud the Odes of Ronsard with burlesque emphasis before Henry II., when the king's sister, Margaret of Valois, seized the book and read them herself. Ronsard accepted Saint-Gelais's apology for this incident, but Du Bellay satirized the offender in the Poete courtisan. In 1554 he collaborated, perhaps with Francois
Habert (1520-1574?), in a translation of the Sophomsbe of Trissino which was represented (1554) before Catherine de Medicis at Blois. Saint-Gelais was the champion of the Style marotique and the earliest of French sonneteers. He died in 1558. His CEuvres were edited in 1873 (3 vols., Bibl. elzevirienne) by Prosper Blanchemain.
SAINT-GEORGES, GEORGES HENRI VERNOY DE (1790- 1875), French dramatist, was born in Paris on the 7th of November 1799. Saint-Louis ou les deux diners (1823), a vaudeville written in collaboration with Alexandre Tardif, was followed by a series of operas and ballets. In 1829 he became manager of the Opera Comique. Among his more famous libretti are: Le Val d'Andorre (1848) for Halevy, and La Fille du regiment (1840) for Donizetti. He wrote some fifty pieces in collaboration with Eugene Scribe, Adolphe de Leuven, or Joseph Mazillier, and a great number in collaboration with other authors. Among his novels may be mentioned Un Manage de prince. Saint-Georges died in Paris on the 23rd of December 1875.
SAINT-GERMAIN, COMTE DE (c. 1710-0. 1780) called der Wundermann, a celebrated adventurer who by the assertion of his discovery of some extraordinary secrets of nature exercised considerable influence at several European courts. Of his parentage and place of birth nothing is definitely known; the common version is that he was a Portuguese Jew, but various surmises have been made as to his being of royal birth. It was also stated that he obtained his money, of which he had abun- dance, from acting as spy to one of the European courts. But this is hard to maintain. He knew nearly all the European languages, and spoke German, English, Italian, French (with a Piedmontese accent) , Portuguese and Spanish. Grimm affirms him to have been the man of the best parts he had ever known. He was a musical composer and a capable violinist. His knowledge of history was comprehensive, and his accomplishments as a chemist, on which be based his reputation, were in many ways real and considerable. He pretended to have a secret for removing flaws from diamonds, and to be able to transmute metals. The most remarkable of his professed discoveries was of a liquid which could prolong life, and by which he asserted he had himself lived 2000 years. After spending some time in Persia, Saint-Germain is mentioned in a letter of Horace Walpole's as being in London about 1743, and as being arrested as a Jacobite spy and released. Walpole says: " He is called an Italian, a Spaniard, a Pole; a somebody that married a great fortune in Mexico and ran away with her jewels to Constantinople; a priest, a fiddler, a vast nobleman." At the court of Louis XV., where he appeared about 1748, he exercised for a time extraordinary influence and was employed on secret missions by Louis XV.; but, having interfered in the dispute between Austria and France, he was compelled in June 1760, on account of the hostility of the duke of Choiseul, to remove to England. He appears to have resided in London for one or two years, but was at St Petersburg in 1762, and is asserted to have played an important part in connexion with the conspiracy against the emperor Peter III. in July of that year, a plot which placed Catherine II. on the Russian throne. He then went to Germany, where, according to the Memoires authentiques of Cagliostro, he was the founder of freemasonry, and initiated Cagliostro into that rite. He was again in Paris from 1770 to 1774, and after frequenting several of the German courts he took up his residence in Schleswig-Holstein, where he and the Landgrave Charles of Hesse pursued together the study of the " secret " sciences. He died at Schleswig in or about 1780-1785, although he is said to have been seen in Paris in 1789.
Andrew Lang in his Historical Mysteries (1904) discusses the career of Saint-Germain, and cites the various authorities for it. Saint- Germain figures prominently in the correspondence of Grimm and of Voltaire. See also Oettinger, Graf Saint-German (1846) ; F. Biilau, Geheime Geschichten und rathselhafte Menschen, Band i. (1850-1860); Lascelles Wraxall, Remarkable Adventures (1863); and U. Birch in the Nineteenth Century (January 1908).
SAINT-GERMAIN, CLAUDE LOUIS, COMTE DE (1707-1778), French general, was born on the isth of April 1707, at the Chateau of Vertamboz. Educated at Jesuit schools, he intended to enter the priesthood, but at the last minute obtained from
ST GERMAIN-EN-LAYE— ST GOTTHARD PASS
Louis XV. an appointment as sub-lieutenant. He left France, according to the gossip of the time, because of a duel; served under the elector palatine; fought for Hungary against the Turks, and on the outbreak of the war of the Austrian Succession (1740) joined the army of the elector of Bavaria (who later became emperor under the name of Charles VII.), displaying such bravery lhat he was promoted to the grade of lieutenant field-marshal. He left Bavaria on the death of Charles VII., and after brief service under Frederick the Great joined Marshal Saxe in the Netherlands and was created a field-marshal of the French army. He distinguished himself especially at Lawfeld, Rancoux and Maastricht. On the outbreak of the Seven Years' War (1756) he was appointed lieutenant-general, and although he showed greater ability than any of his fellow-commanders and was admired by his soldiers, he fell a victim to court intrigues, professional jealousy and hostile criticism. He resigned his commission in 1 760 and accepted an appointment as field-marshal from Frederick V. of Denmark, being charged in 1762 with the reorganization of the Danish army. On the death of Frederick in 1766 he returned to France, bought a small estate in Alsace near Lauterbach, and devoted his time to religion and farming. A financial crisis swept away the funds that he had saved from his Danish service and rendered him dependent on the bounty of the French ministry of war. Saint-Germain was presented at court by the reformers Turgot and Malesherbes, and was ap- pointed minister of war by Louis XVI. on the 25th of October 1775. He sought to lessen the number of officers and to establish order and regularity in the service. His efforts to introduce Prussian discipline in the French army brought on such opposition that he resigned in September 1777. He accepted quarters from the king and a pension of 40,000 livres, and died in his apartment at the arsenal on the isth of January 1778.
ST GERMAIN-EN-LAYE, a town of northern France, in the department of Seine-et-Oise, 13 m. W.N.W. of Paris by rail. Pop. (1006), town, 14,974; commune, 17,288. Built on a hill on the left bank of the Seine, nearly 300 ft. above the river, and on the edge of a forest 10,000 to 11,000 acres in extent, St Germain has a bracing climate, which makes it a place of summer residence for Parisians. The terrace of St Germain, constructed by A.Len&tre in 1672, is ij m. long and looft.wide; it was planted with lime trees in 1745 and affords an extensive view over the valley of the Seine as far as Paris and the surrounding hills: it ranks as one of the finest promenades in Europe.
A'monastery in honour of St Germain, bishop of Paris, was built in the forest of Lave by King Robert. Louis VI. erected a castle close by. Burned by the English, rebuilt by Louis IX., and again by Charles V., this castle did not reach its full development till the time of Francis I., who may be regarded as the real founder of the building. A new castle was begun by Henry II. and completed by Henry IV7; it was subsequently demolished, with the exception of the so-called Henry IV. pavilion, where Thiers died in 1877. The old castle has been restored to the state in which it was under Francis I. The restoration is particularly skilful in the case of the chapel, which dates from the first half of the I3th century. In the church of St Germain is a mausoleum erected by George IV. of England (and restored by Queen Victoria) to the memory of James II. of England, who after his deposition resided in the castle for twelve years and died there in 1701. In one of the public squares is a statue of Thiers. At no great distance in the forest is the Couvent des Loges, a branch of the educational establish- ment of the Legion of Honour (St Denis). The ffite des Loges (end of August and beginning of September) is one of the most popular in the neighbourhood of Paris.
ST GERMANS, a small town in the Bodmin parliamentary divi- sion of Corn wall, England, pleasant ly situated on the river Lynher, 9$ m. W. by N. of Plymouth by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 2384. It contains a fine church dedicated to St Germanus. The west front is flanked by towers both of which are Norman in the lower parts, the upper part being in the one Early English and in the othei Perpendicular. The front itself is wholly Norman, having three windows above a porch with a beautiful ornate door- way. Some Norman work remains in the body of the church, but the most part is Perpendicular or Decorated. Port Eliot, a neighbouring mansion, contains an excellent collection of pictures, notably several works of Sir Joshua Reynolds.
St Germans is supposed to have been the original seat of. the Cornish bishopric. It was the see of Bishop Burhwold, who died in 1027. Under Leofric, who became bishop of Crediton and Cornwall in 1046, the see was removed to Exeter. Bishop Leofric founded a priory at St Germans and bestowed upon it twelve of the twenty-four hides which in the time of the Confessor constituted the bishops' manor of St Germans. There was then a market on Sundays, but at the time of the Domesday Survey this had been reduced to nothing owing to a market established by the count of Mortain on the same day at Trematon castle. In 1302 the grant of infangenethef, assize of bread and ale, waif and stray by Henry III. was confirmed to the bishop, who in 1311 obtained a further grant of a market on Fridays and a fair at the feast of St Peter ad Vincula. In 1343 the prior sustained his claim to a prescriptive market and fair at St Germans. After the suppression the borough belonging to the priory remained with the crown until 1610. Meanwhile Queen Elizabeth created it a parliamentary borough. From 1563 to 1832 it returned two members to the House of Commons. In 1815 John Eliot was created earl of St Germans, and in 1905 the first suffragan bishop of Truro was consecrated bishop of St Germans.
ST GILLES, a town of southern France, in the department of Gard, on the canal from the Rhone to Cette, 125 m. S.S.E. of Nimes by road. Pop. (1906) 5292. In the middJe ages St Gilles, the ancient Vallis Flaviana, was the seat of an abbey founded towards the end of the 7th century by St Aegidius (St Gilles). It acquired wealth and power under the counts of Toulouse, who added to their title that of counts of St Gilles. The church, which survives, was founded in 1116 when the abbey was at the height of its prosperity. The lower part of the front (i2th century) has three bays decorated with columns and bas-reliefs, and is the richest example of Romanesque art in Provence. The rest of the church is unfinished, only the crypt (i2th century) and part of the choir, containing a spiral staircase, being of interest. Besides the church there is a Romanesque house serving as presbytery. The decadence of the abbey dates from the early years of the i3th century when the pilgrimage to the tomb of the saint became less popular; the monks also lost the patronage of the counts of Toulouse, owing to the penance inflicted by them on Raymond VI. in 1209 for the murder of the papal legate Pierre de Castelnau. St Gilles was the seat of the first grand priory of the Knights Hospitallers in Europe (i2th century) and was of special importance as their place of embarka- tion for the East. In 1226 the countship of St Gilles was united to the crown. In 1562 the Protestants ravaged the abbey, which they occupied till 1622, and in 1774 it was suppressed.
ST GIRONS, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Ariege, 29 m. W. of Foix by rail. Pop. (1906) 5216. The town is situated on the Salat at the foot of the Pyrenees. There are mineral springs at Audinac in the vicinity, and the watering-place of Aulus, about 20 m. to the S.S.E., is reached by road from St Girons. St Lizier-de- Couserans (g.».),an ancient episcopal town, is i m. N.N.W.
ST GOAR, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, on the left bank of the Rhine, opposite St Goarshausen and just below the famous Lorelei, 1 2 m. above Boppard by the railway from Coblenz to Mainz. Pop. (1905) 1475. It is in part sur- rounded by the ruins of its old walls, and contains an Evangelical church, with some Renaissance monuments, and a Roman Catholic church with an image of St Goar of Aquitania, around whose chapel the place originally arose. Below the town, high on an eminence above the Rhine, stands Schloss Rheinfels, the property of the king of Prussia, the most perfect of the feudal castles on the banks of the river. In the later middle ages St Goar was the capital of the county of Katzenelnbogen, and on the extinction of this family it passed to Hesse-Cassel. It came into the possession of Prussia in 1815.
ST GOTTHARD PASS, the principal route from northern Europe to Italy. It takes its name (it is not known wherefore) from St Gotthard, bishop of Hildesheim (d. 1038), but does not seem to be mentioned before the early I3th century, perhaps because the access to it lies through two very narrow Alpine
ST HELENA
valleys, much exposed to avalanches. The hospice on the summit is first mentioned in 1331, and from 1683 onwards was in charge of two Capuchin friars. But in 1775 the buildings near it were damaged by an avalanche, while in 1799-1800 everything was destroyed by the French soldiery. Rebuilt in 1834, the hospice was burnt in March 1905. The mule path (dating from about 1293) across the pass served for many centuries, for though Mr Greville, in 1775, succeeded in taking a light carriage across, the carriage-road was only constructed between 1820 and 1830. Now the pass is deserted in favour of the great tunnel (pierced in 1872-1880, 9! m. in length, and attaining a height of 3786 ft.), through which runs the railway (opened in 1882) from Lucerne to Milan (1755 m.), one of the greatest engineering feats of the igth century. It runs mainly along the eastern shore of the Lake of Lucerne, from Lucerne to Fliielen (325 m.), and then up the Reuss valley past Altdorf and Wassen, near which is the first of the famous spiral tunnels, to Goeschenen (56 m. from Lucerne). Here the h'ne leaves the Reuss valley to pass through the tunnel and so gain, at Airolo, the valley of the Ticino or the Val Leventina, which it descends, through several spiral tunnels, till at Biasca (38 m. from Goeschenen) it reaches more level ground. Thence it runs past Bellinzona to Lugano (30! m. from Biasca) and reaches Italian territory at Chiasso, 35 m. from Milan. In 1909 the Swiss government exercised the right accorded to it by the agreement of 1879 of buying the St Gotthard Railway from the company which built it within thirty years of that date. (W. A. B.C.)
ST HELENA, an island and British possession in the South Atlantic in 15° 55' 26" S., 5° 42' 30" W. (Ladder Hill Observatory). It lies 700 m. S.E. of the island of Ascension (the nearest land), 1200 m. W. of Mossamedes (the nearest African port), 1695 N.W. of Cape Town, and is distant from Southampton 4477 m. It has an area of about 47 sq. m., the extreme length from S.W. to N.E. being io| m. and the extreme breadth 8J. The island is of volcanic formation, but greatly changed by oceanic abrasion and atmospheric denudation. Its principal feature, a semi- circular ridge of mountains, open towards the south-east and south, with the culminating summit of Diana's Peak (2704 ft.) is the northern rim of a great crater; the southern rim has disappeared, though its debris apparently keeps the sea shallow (from 20 to 50 fathoms) for some 2 m. S.E. of Sandy Bay, which hypothetically forms the centre of the ring. From the crater wall outwards water-cut gorges stretch in all directions, widening as they approach the sea into valleys, some of which are 1000 ft. deep, and measure one-eighth of a mile across at bottom and three-eighths across the top (Melliss). These valleys contain small streams, but the island has no rivers properly so called. Springs of pure water are, however, abundant. Along the enclosing hillsides caves have been formed by the washing out of the softer rocks. Basalts, andesites and phonolites, represent the chief flows. Many dikes and masses of basaltic rock seem to have been injected subsequently to the last volcanic eruptions from the central crater. The Ass's Ears and Lot's Wife, picturesque pinnacles standing out on the S.E. part of the crater ridge, and the Chimney on the coast south of Sandy Bay, are formed out of such injected dikes and masses. In the neighbourhood of Man and Horse (S.W. corner of the island), throughout an area of about 40 acres, scarcely 50 sq. yds. exist not crossed by a dyke. On the leeward (northern) side of St Helena the sea-face is generally formed by cliffs from 600 to 1000 ft. high, and on the windward side these heights rise to about 2000 ft., as at Holdfast Tom, Stone Top and Oid Joan Point. The only practicable landing-place is on the leeward side at St James's Bay — an open roadstead. From the head of the bay a narrow valley extends for ij m. The greatest extent of level ground is in the N.E. of the island, where are the Deadwood and Long- wood plains, over 1700 ft. above the sea.
Climate. — Although it lies within the tropics the climate of the island is healthy and temperate. This is due to the south-east trade-wind, constant throughout the year, and to the effect of the cold waters of the South Atlantic current. As a result the tempera- ture varies little, ranging on the sea level from 68° to 84° in summer and 57 ° to 70° in winter. The higher regions are about I o cooler. The
rainfall varies considerably, being from 30 to 50 in. a year in the hills.
Flora. — St Helena is divided into three vegetation zones: (i) the coast zone, extending inland for I m. to 1$ m., formerly clothed with a luxuriant vegetation, but now " dry, barren, soilless, lichen- coated, and rocky,' with little save prickly pears, wire grass and Mesembryanthemum; (2) the middle zone (400-1800 ft.), extending about three-quarters of a mile inland, with shallower valleys and grassier slopes — the English broom and gorse, brambles, willows, poplars, Scotch pines, &c., being the prevailing forms; and (3) the central zone, about 3 m. long and 2 m. wide, the home, for the most part, of the indigenous flora. According to W. B. Hemsley (in his report on the botany of the Atlantic Islands),1 the certainly in- digenous species of plants are 65, the probably indigenous 24 and the doubtfully indigenous 5 ; total 94. Of the 38 flowering plants 20 are shrubs or small trees. With the exception of Scirpus nodosus, all the 38 are peculiar to the island; and the same is true of 12 of the 27 vascular cryptogams (a remarkable proportion). Since the flora began to be studied, two species — Melhania melanoxylon and Acalypha rubra — are known to have become extinct; and at least two others have probably shared the same fate — Heliotropium pennifolium and Demazeria obliterata. Melhania melanoxylon, or " native ebony," once abounded in parts of the island now barren; but the young trees were allowed to be destroyed by the goats of the early settlers, and it is now extinct. Its beautiful congener Melhania erythroxylon (" redwood ") was still tolerably plentiful in 1810, but is now reduced to a few specimens. Very rare, too, has become Pelargonium cotyledonis, called " Old Father Live-for-ever," from its retaining vitality for months without soil or water. Commi- dendron robustum (" gumwood "), a tree about 20 ft. high, once the most abundant in the island, was represented in 1868 by about 1300 or 1400 examples; and Commidendron rugosum (" scrubwood ") is confined to somewhat limited regions. Both these plants are char- acterized by a daisy- or aster-like blossom. The affinities of the indigenous flora of St Helena were described by Sir Joseph Hooker as African, but George Bentham points out that the Cpmpositae shows, at least in its older forms, a connexion rather with South America. The exotic flora introduced from all parts of the world gives the island almost the aspect of a botanic garden. The oak, thoroughly naturalized, grows alongside of the bamboo and banana. Among other trees and plants are the common English gorse ; Rubus pinnatus, probably introduced from Africa about 1775; Hypochaeris radicata, which above 1500 ft. forms the dandelion of the country; the beautiful but aggressive Buddleia Madagascar iensis ; Physalis peru- viana; the common castor-oil plant; and the pride of India. The peepul is the principal shade tree in Jamestown, and in Jamestown valley the date-palm grows freely. Orange and lemon trees, once common, are now scarce.
Fauna. — St Helena possesses no indigenous vertebrate land fauna. The only land groups well represented are the beetles and the land shells. T. V. Wollaston, in Coleoptera Sanctae Helenae (1877), shows that out of a total list of 203 species of beetles 129 are probably aboriginal and 128 peculiar to the island — an individuality perhaps unequalled in the world. More than two-thirds are weevils and a vast majority wood-borers, a fact which bears out the tradition of forests having once covered the island. The Hemiptera and the land-shells also show a strong residuum ofpeculiar genera and species. A South American white ant (Termes tennis, Hagen.), introduced from a slave-ship in 1840, soon became a plague at Jamestown, where it consumed a large part of the public library and the woodwork of many buildings, public and private. Practically everything had to be rebuilt with teak or cypress — the only woods the white ant cannot devour. Fortunately it cannot live in the higher parts of the island. The honey-bee, which throve for some time after its introduction, again died out (cf. A. R. Wallace, Island Life, 1880). Besides domestic animals the only land mammals are rabbits, rats and mice, the rats being especially abundant and building their nests in the highest trees. Probably the only endemic land bird is the wire bird, Aegialitis sanctae Helenae; the averdevat, Java sparrow, cardinal, ground-dove, partridge (possibly the Indian chukar),_ pheasant and guinea-fowl are all common. The pea-fowl, at one time not uncommon in a wild state, is long since exterminated. There are no freshwater fish, beetles or shells. Of sixty-five species of sea-fish caught off the island seventeen are peculiar to St Helena ; economically the more important kinds are gurnard, eel, cod, mackerel, tunny, bullseye, cavalley, flounder, hog-fish, mullet and skulpin.
Inhabitants. — When discovered the island was uninhabited. The majority of the population are of mixed European (British, Dutch, Portuguese), East Indian and African descent — the Asiatic strain perhaps predominating; the majority of the early settlers having been previously members of the crews of ships returning to Europe from the East. From 1840 onward for a considerable period numbers of freed slaves of West African origin were settled here by men-of-war engaged in suppressing the slave trade. Their descendants form a distinct element
* In the "Challenger" expedition reports, Botany, vol. i. (1885).
8
ST HELENA
in the population. Since the substitution of steamships for sailing vessels and the introduction of new methods of preserving meat and vegetables (which made it unnecessary for sailing vessels to take fresh provisions from St Helena to avoid scurvy) the population has greatly diminished. In 1871 there were 6444 inhabitants; in 1909 the civil population was estimated at 3553. The death-rate that year, 6-4 per 1000, was the lowest on record in the island. The only town, in which live more than half the total population, is Jamestown. Longwood, where Napoleon died in 1821, is 3^ m. E. by S. of Jamestown. In 1858 the house in which he lived and died was presented by Queen Victoria to Napoleon III., who had it restored to the con- dition, but unfurnished, in which it was at the time of Bona- parte's death.
Agriculture, Industries, &c. — Less than a third of the area of the island is suitable for farming, while much of the area which might be (and formerly was) devoted to raising crops is under grass. The principal crop is potatoes, which are of very good quality. They were chiefly sold to ships — especially to " passing " ships. They are now occasionally exported to the Cape. Cattle and sheep were raised in large numbers when a garrison was maintained, so that difficulty has been found in disposing of surplus stock now that the troops have been withdrawn. The economic conditions which formerly prevailed were entirely altered by the substitution of steamers for sailing vessels, which caused a great decrease in the number of ships calling at Jamestown. A remedy was sought in the establishment of industries. An attempt made in 1869—1872 to cultivate cinchona proved unsuccessful. Attention was also turned to the aloe (Furcraea gigantea), which grows wild at mid elevations, and the New Zealand flax (Phormium tenax), an intro- duced plant, for their utilization in the manufacture of fibre. From 1875 to 1881 a company ran a mill at which they turned out both aloe and flax fibre, but the enterprise proved unremunerative. In 1907 the government, aided by a grant of £4070 from the imperial exchequer, started a mill at Longwood for the manufacture of phormium fibre, with encouraging results. Fish curing and lace making are also carried on to some extent.
Trade is chiefly dependent upon the few ships that call at James- town— now mostly whalers or vessels in distress. There is also some trade with ships that " pass " without " calling."1 In thirty years (1877-1907) the number of ships " calling " at the port sank from 664 with 449,724 tonnage to 57 with 149,182 tonnage. In the last- named year the imports were valued at £35,614; the exports (ex- cluding specie) at £1787 — but the goods supplied to " passing " vessels do not figure in these returns. In 1908 fibre and tow (valued at £3557) were added to the exports, and in 1909 a good trade was done with Ascension in sheep. St Helena is in direct telegraphic communication with Europe and South Africa, and there is a regular monthly mail steamship service.
Government, Revenue, &c. — St Helena is a Crown colony. The island has never had any form of jocal legislative chamber, but the governor (who also acts as chief justice) is aided by an executive council. The governor alone makes laws, called ordinances, but legislation can also be effected by the Crown by order in council. The revenue, £10,287 m I9°5. had fallen in 1909 to £8778 (including a grant in aid of £2500), the expenditure in each of the five years (1905-1909) being in excess of the revenue. Elementary education is provided in government and private schools. St Helena is the seat of an Anglican bishopric established in 1859. Ascension and Tristan da Cunha are included in the diocese.
History. — The island was discovered on the 2ist of May 1502 by the Portuguese navigator Joao de Nova, on his voyage home from India, and by him named St Helena. The Portuguese found it uninhabited, imported live stock, fruit- trees and vegetables, built a chapel and one or two houses, and left their sick there to be taken home, if recovered, by the next ship, but they formed no permanent settlement. Its first known permanent resident was Fernando Lopez, a Portuguese in India, who had turned traitor and had been mutilated by order of Albuquerque. He preferred being marooned to returning to Portugal in his maimed condition, and was landed at St Helena in 1513 with three or four negro slaves. By royal command he visited Portugal some time later, but returned to St Helena, where he died in 1546. In 1584 two Japanese ambassadors to Rome landed at the island. The first Englishman known to have visited it was Thomas Cavendish, who touched there in June 1 588 during his voyage round the world. Another English
1 " Calling " ships are those which have been boarded by the harbour master and given pratique. Since 1886 boatmen are allowed to communicate with ships that have not obtained pratique, and these are known as " passing " ships.
seaman, Captain Kendall, visited St Helena in 1591, and in 1593 Sir James Lancaster stopped at the island on his way home from the East. In 1603 the same commander again visited St Helena on his return from the first voyage equipped by the East India Company. The Portuguese had by this time given up calling at the island, which appears to have been occupied by the Dutch about 1645. The Dutch occupation was temporary and ceased in 1651, the year before they founded Cape Town. The British East India Company appropriated the island immediately after the departure of the Dutch, and they were confirmed in possession by a clause in their charter of 1661. The company built a fort (1658), named after the duke of York (James II.), and established a garrison in the island. In 1673 the Dutch succeeded in obtaining possession, but were ejected after a few months' occupation. Since that date St Helena has been in the undisturbed possession of Great Britain, though in 1706 two ships anchored off James- town were carried off by the French. In 1673 the Dutch had been expelled by the forces of the Crown, but by a new charter granted in December of the same year the East India Company were declared " the true and absolute lords and proprietors" of the island. At this time the inhabitants numbered about icoo, of whom nearly half were negro slaves. In 1810 the company began the importation of Chinese from their factory at Canton. During the company's rule the island prospered, thousands of homeward-bound vessels anchored in the road- stead in a year, staying for considerable periods, refitting and revictualling. Large sums of money were thus expended in the island, where wealthy merchants and officials had their resi- dence. The plantations were worked by the slaves, who were subjected to very barbarous laws until 1792, when a new code of regulations ensured their humane treatment and prohibited the importation of any new slaves. Later it was enacted that all children of slaves born on or after Christmas Day 1818 should be free, and between 1826 and 1836 all slaves were set at liberty.
Among the governors appointed by the company to rule at St Helena was one of the Huguenot refugees, Captain Stephen Poirier (1697-1707), who attempted unsuccessfully to introduce the cultivation of the vine. A later governor (1741-1742) was Robert Jenkin (q.v.) of " Jenkin's ear " fame. Dampier visited the island twice, in 1691 and 1701; Halley's Mount commemor- ates the visit paid by the astronomer Edmund Halley in 1676- 1678 — the first of a number of scientific men who have pursued their studies on the island.
In 1815 the British government selected St Helena as the place of detention of Napoleon Bonaparte. He was brought to the island in October of that year and lodged at Longwood, where he died in May 1821. During this period the island was strongly garrisoned by regular troops, and the governor, Sir Hudson Lowe, was nominated by the Crown. After Napoleon's death the East India Company resumed full control of St Helena until the 22nd of April 1834, on which date it was in virtue of an act passed in 1833 vested in the Crown. As a port of call the island continued to enjoy a fair measure of prosperity until about 1870. Since that date the great decrease in the number of vessels visiting Jamestown has deprived the islanders of their principal means of subsistence. When steamers began to be substituted for sailing vessels and when the Suez Canal was opened (in 1869) fewer ships passed the island, while of those that still pass the greater number are so well found that it is unnecessary for them to call (see also § Inhabitants). The with- drawal in 1906 of the small garrison, hitherto maintained by the imperial government, was another cause of depression. During the Anglo-Boer war of 1899-1902 some thousands of Boer prisoners were detained at St Helena, which has also served as the place of exile of several Zulu chiefs, including Dinizulu.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.—-!. C. Melliss, St Helena: a Physical, Historical and Topographical Description of the Island, including its Geology, Fauna, Flora and Meteorology (London, 1875); E. L. Jackson, St Helena (London, 1903); T. H. Brooke, History of the Island of St Helena . . . to 1823 (2nd ed., London, 1824), in this book are cited many early accounts of the island ; General A. Beatson (governor of the island 1808-1813), Tracts Relative to the Island of St Helena
ST HELENS— ST INGBERT
(London, 1816) ; Extracts from the St Helena Records from 1673 to 1835 (compiled by H- R. Janisch, sometime governor of the island, James- town, 1885); Charles Darwin, Geological Observations on Volcanic Islands (1844). For a condensed general account consult (Sir) C. P. Lucas, Historical Geography of the British Colonies (vol. Hi., West Africa, 2nd ed., Oxford, 1900). See also M. Danvers, Report on the Records of the India Office, vol. i. pt. i. (London, 1887); The Africa Pilot, pt. ii. (5th ed., IQOI); Report on the Present Position and Prospects of the Agricultural Resources of the Island of St Helena, by (Sir) D. Morris (1884; reprinted 1906). (R. L. A.; F. R. C.)
ST HELENS, a market town and municipal, county, and parlia- mentary borough of Lancashire, England, 14 m. E.N.E. from Liverpool, on the London & North- Western and Great Central railways. Pop. (1891) 72,413; (1901) 84,410. A canal com- municates with the Mersey. The town is wholly of modern development. Besides the town hall arid other public buildings and institutions there may be mentioned the Gamble Institute, erected and presented by Sir David Gamble, Bart., for a technical school, educating some 2000 students, and library. Among several public pleasure grounds the principal are the Taylor Park of 48 acres, and the smaller Victoria and Thatto Heath Parks. This is the principal seat in England for the manufacture of crown, plate, and sheet glass; there are also art glass works, and extensive copper smelting and refining works, as well as chemical works, iron and brass foundries, potteries and patent medicine works. There are collieries in the neighbourhood. To the north of the town are a few ecclesiastical ruins, known as Windleshaw Abbey, together with a well called St Thomas' well, but the history of the foundation is not known. The parliamentary borough (1885) returns one member. The county borough was created in 1888. The town was incorporated in 1868, and the corporation consists of a mayor, 9 aldermen and 27 councillors. Area 7285 acres.
ST HELIER, the chief town of Jersey, the largest of the Channel Islands. Pop. (1901) 27,866. It lies on the south coast of the island on the eastern side of St Aubin's Bay. The harbour is flanked on the W. by a rocky ridge on which stands Elizabeth Castle, and commanded on the east by Fort Regent on its lofty promontory. The parish church is a cruciform building with embattled tower, dating in part from the I4th century. It contains a monument to Major Peirson, who on the occasion of a French attack on Jersey in 1781 headed the militia to oppose them, and forced them to surrender, but was killed as his followers were at the point of victory. The French leader, Baron de Rullecourt, is buried in the churchyard. The spot where Peirson fell, in what is now called Peirson Place, is marked by a tablet. A large canvas by John Singleton Copley depicting the scene is in the National Gallery, London, and a copy is in the court house of St Helier. This building (la Cohue), in Royal Square, is the meeting-place of the royal court and deliberative States of Jersey. Victoria College was opened in 1852 and commemorates a visit of Queen Victoria and the prince consort to the island in 1846. A house in Marine Terrace is distinguished as the residence of Victor Hugo (1851- 1855). Elizabeth Castle, which is connected with the main- land by a causeway, dates from 1551-1590; and in 1646 and 1649 Prince Charles resided here. In 1649 he was pro- claimed king, as Charles II., in Jersey by the royalist governor George Carteret. On actually coming to the throne he gave the island the mace which is still used at the meetings of the court and States. Close to the castle are remnants of a chapel or cell, from which the rock on which it stands is known as the Hermitage, dating probably from the gth or loth century, and traditionally connected with the patron saint Helerius.
SAINT-HILAIRE, AUGUSTIN FRANCOIS CfeSAR PROU- VENQAL DE, commonly known as AUGUSTE DE (1799-1853), French botanist and traveller, was born at Orleans on the 4th of October 1799. He began to publish memoirs on botanical subjects at an early age. In 1816-1822 and in 1830 he travelled in South America, especially in south and central Brazil, and the results of his study of the rich flora of the regions through which he passed appeared in several books and numerous articles in scientific journals. The works by which he is best known are
the Flora Brasilia* Meridionalis (3 vols., folio, with 192 coloured plates, 1825-1832), published in conjunction with A. de Jussieu and J. Cambessedes, Histoire des plantes les plus remarquables du Bresil et de Paraguay (i vol. 4to, 30 plates, 1824), Plantes usuelles des Bresiliens (i vol. 4to, 70 plates, 1827-1828), also in con- junction with De Jussieu and Cambessedes, and Voyage dans le district des diamants etsur le littoral du Bresil (2vols., 8vo, 1833). His Lemons de botanique, comprenant principalement la morphologic vegetale (1840), was a comprehensive exposition of botanical morphology and of its application to systematic botany. He died at Orleans on the 3Oth of September 1853.
ST HUBERT, a small town of Belgium in the province of Luxemburg and in the heart of the Ardennes. Pop. (1904) 3204. It is famous for its abbey church containing the shrine of St Hubert, and for its annual pilgrimage. According to tradition the church and a monastery attached to it were founded in the 7th century by Plectrude, wife of Pippin of Herstal. The second church was built in the i2th century, but burnt by a French army under Conde in the i6th century. The present building is its successor, but has been restored in modern times and presents no special feature. The tomb of St Hubert — a marble sarcophagus ornamented with bas-reliefs and having four statuettes of other saints at the angles — stands in one of the side chapels. The legend of the conversion of St Hubert — a hunter before he was a saint — by his meeting in the forest a stag with a crucifix between its antlers, is well known, and explains how he became the patron saint of huntsmen. The place where he is supposed to have met the stag is still known as " la comierserie " and is almost 5 m: from St Hubert on the road to La Roche. The pilgrimage of St Hubert in May attracts annually between thirty and fifty thousand pilgrims. The buildings of the old monastery have been utilized for a state training-school for waifs and strays, which contains on an average five hundred pupils. In the middle ages the abbey of St Hubert was one of the most important in Europe, owning forty villages with an annual income of over 80,000 crowns. During the French Revolution, when Belgium was divided into several departments, the possessions of the abbey were sold for £7 5,000, but the bishop of Namur was permitted to buy the church itself for £1350.
ST HYACINTHE, a city and port of entry of Quebec, Canada, and capital of St Hyacinthe county, 32m. E.N.E. of Montreal, on the left bank of the river Yamaska and on the Grand Trunk, Canadian Pacific, Intercolonial, and Quebec Southern railways. Pop. (1901) 9210. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop, and contains a classical college, dairy school, two monasteries and several other educational and charitable institutions. It has manufactures of organs, leather, woollens and agricultural implements, and is an important distributing centre for the surrounding district.
SAINTINE, JOSEPH XAVIER (1798-1865), French novelist and dramatist, whose real surname was BONIFACE, was born in Paris on the loth of July 1798. In 1823 he produced a volume of poetry in the manner of the Romanticists, entitled Poemes, odes, (pitres. In 1836 appeared Picciola, the story of the comte de Charney, a political prisoner in Piedmont, whose reason was saved by his cult of a tiny flower growing between the paving stones of his prison yard. This story is a masterpiece of the sentimental kind, and has been translated into many European languages. He produced many other novels, none of striking individuality with the exception of Seal (1857), which purported to be the authentic record of Alexander Selkirk on his desert island. Saintine was a prolific dramatist, and collaborated in some hundred pieces with Scribe and others, usually under the name of Xavier. He died on the 2ist of January 1865.
ST INGBERT, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria on the Rohrbach, 14 m. by rail W. of Zweibriicken. Pop. (1905) 15,521. It has coal-mines and manufactures of glass and machinery. There are also large iron and steel works in the town, and other industries are the making of powder, leather, cigars, soap and cotton. St Ingbert is named after the Irish saint, St Ingobert, and belonged for 300 years to the electorate of-Trier.
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ST IVES— ST JOHN, J. A.
ST IVES, a market town, municipal borough and seaport in the St Ives parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, 10 m. N.N.E. of Penzance, on a branch of the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 6699. It lies near the W. horn of St Ives Bay on the N. coast. The older streets near the harbour are narrow and irregular, but on the upper slopes there are modern terraces with good houses. The small harbour, protected by a breakwater, originally built by John Smeaton in 1767, has suffered from the accumulation of sand, and at the lowest tides is dry. The fisheries for pilchard, herring and mackerel are important. Boat-building and sail-making are carried on. An eminence south of the town is marked by a granite monument erected in 1782 by John Knill, a native of the town, who intended to be buried here; to maintain a quinquennial celebration on the spot he bequeathed property to the town authorities. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 1890 acres.
The town takes name from St Hya, or la, an Irish virgin and martyr, who is said to have accompanied St Piran on his missionary journey to Cornwall in the 5th century, and to have landed near this place. The Patent Rolls disclose an almost continuous series of trials for piracy and plunder by St Ives sailors from the beginning of the i4th to the end of the i6th century. A mere chapelry of Lelant and the less important member of the distant manor of Ludgvan Leaze, which in Domesday Book appears as Luduam, it had no fostering hand to minister to its growth. In order to augment the influence of the Tudors in the House of Commons, Philip and Mary in 1558 invested it with the privilege of returning 2 members. Its affairs were at that time administered by a headwarden, who after 1598 appears under the name of portreeve, 12 chief burgesses and 24 ordinary burgesses. The portreeve was elected by the 24; the 12 by the chief inhabitants. This body had control over the fishing, the harbour and harbour dues, the fabric of the church, sanitation and the poor. In 1639 a charter of incorpora- tion was granted under which the portreeve became mayor, the 12 became aldermen, and the 24 were styled burgesses. Pro- vision was made for four fairs and for markets on Wednesdays and Saturdays, also for a grammar school. This charter was surrendered to Charles II. and a new one granted in 1685, the latter reducing the number of aldermen to 10 and of burgesses also to 10. It ratified the parliamentary franchise and the fairs and markets, and provided a court of pie-powder; it also con- tained a clause safeguarding the rights of the marquess of Winchester, lord of the manor of Ludgvan Leaze and Porthia. In 1835 a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors were invested with the administration of the borough. In 1832 St Ives lost one of its members, and in 1885 the other. Both markets are now held, but only one of the fairs. This takes place on the Saturday nearest St Andrew's day.
ST IVES, a market town and municipal borough in the northern parliamentary division of Huntingdonshire, England, mainly on the left (north) bank of the Ouse, 5 m. E. of Huntingdon by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1001) 2910. The river is crossed by an old bridge said to have been built by the abbots of Ramsey early in the 15th century. A building over the centre pier of the bridge was once used as a chapel. The causeway (1827) on the south side of the river is built on arches so as to assist the flow of the river in time of flood. The church of All Saints is Perpendicular, with earlier portions. A curious custom is practised annually in this church in connexion with a bequest made by a certain Dr Robert Wilde in 1678: it is the distribution of Bibles to six boys and six girls of the town. The original provision was that the Bibles should be cast for by dice on the Communion table. Oliver Cromwell was a resident in St Ives in 1634-1635, but the house which he inhabited — Slepe Hall — was demolished in the middle of the igth century. St Ives has a considerable agricultural trade. It is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 1 2 councillors. Area 2326 acres.
The manor of " Slepe " is said to have been given by /Ethelstan " Mannessune " to the abbot of Ramsey and confirmed to him by King Edgar. It owed its change of name to the supposed discovery of the grave of St Ive, a Persian bishop, in 1001,
and a priory was founded in the same year by Abbot Ednoth as a cell to Ramsey. St Ives was chiefly noted for its fair, which was first granted to the abbot of Ramsey by Henry I. to be held on Monday in Easter week and eight days following. In the reign of Henry III. merchants from Flanders came to the fair, which had become so important that the king granted it to be continued beyond the eight days if the abbot agreed to pay a farm of £50 yearly for the extra days. The fair, with a market on Monday granted to the abbot in 1286, survives, and was purchased in 1874 by the corporation from the duke of Manchester. The town was incorporated in 1874.
ST JEAN-D'ANG^LY, a town of western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Charente-Inferieure, 33 m. E. of Rochefort by rail. Pop. (1906) 6242. St Jean lies on the right bank of the Boutonne, which is navigable for small vessels. The parish church of St Jean stands on the site of an abbey church of the I3th century, of which some remains are left. In 1568 the monastery was destroyed by the Huguenots, but much of it was rebuilt in the 1 7th and i8th centuries, to which period belong two towers and the facade of an unfinished church.
St Jean owes the suffix of its name to the neighbouring forest of Angary (Angeriacum). Pippin I. of Aquitaine in the gth century established there a Benedictine monastery which was afterwards reputed to possess the head of John the Baptist. This relic attracted hosts of pilgrims; a town grew up, took the name of St Jean d'Angeri, afterwards d'Ang61y, was fortified in 1131, and in 1204 received a charter from Philip Augustus. The possession of the place was disputed between French and English m the Hundred Years' War, and between Catholics and Protestants at a later date. In 1569 it capitulated to the duke of Anjou (afterwards Henry III.). Louis XIII. again took it from the Protestants in 1621 and deprived it of its privileges and its very name, which he changed to Bourg-Louis.
ST JEAN-DE-LUZ, a coast town of south-western France, in the department of Basses-Pyrenees, at the mouth of the Nivelle, 14 m. S.W. of Bayonne on a branch of the Southern railway. Pop. (1906) 3424. St Jean-de-Luz is situated in the Basque country on the bay of St Jean-de-Luz, the entrance to which is protected by breakwaters and moles. It has a 13th- century church, the chief features of which are the galleries in the nave, which, according to the Basque custom, are reserved for men. The Maison Lohobiague, the Maison de PInfante (both 1 7th cent.), and the h&tel de ville (1657) are picturesque old buildings. St Jean is well known for its bathing and as a winter resort. Fishing is a considerable industry.
From the I4th to the I7th century St Jean-de-Luz enjoyed a prosperity due to its mariners and fishermen. Its vessels were the first to set out for Newfoundland in 1520. In 1558, owing to the depredations of its privateers, the Spaniards attacked and burned the town. In 1627, however, it was able to equip 80 vessels, which succeeded in saving the island of R6 from the duke of Buckingham. In 1660 the treaty of the Pyrenees was signed at St Jean-de-Luz, and was followed by the marriage there of the Infanta Maria Theresa and Louis XIV. At that time the population numbered 15,000. The cession of Newfoundland to England in 1713, the loss of Canada, and the silting-up of the harbour were the three causes which contri- buted to the decline of the town.
ST JOHN, CHARLES WILLIAM GEORGE (1809-1856), English naturalist and sportsman, son of General the Hon. Frederick St John, second son of Frederick, second Viscount Bolingbroke, was born on the 3rd of December 1809. He was educated at Midhurst, Sussex, and about 1828 obtained a clerk- ship in the treasury, but resigned in 1834, in which year he married a lady with some fortune. He ultimately settled in the " Laigh " of Moray, " within easy distance of mountain sport." In 1853 a paralytic seizure deprived him of the use of his limbs, and for the benefit of his health he removed to the south of England. He died at Woolston, near Southampton, on the 22nd of July 1856. His works are Wild Sports and Natural History of the Highlands (1846, 2nd ed. 1848, 3rd ed. 1861); Tour in Sutherland (1849, 2nd ed., with recollections by Captain H. St John, 1884); Notes of Natural History and Sport in Morayshire, with Memoir by C. Innes (1863, 2nd ed. 1884). They are written in a graphic style, and illustrated with engravings, many of them from clever pen-and-ink sketches of his own.
ST JOHN, JAMES AUGUSTUS (1801-1875), British author and traveller, was born in Carmarthenshire, Wales, on the 24th
ST JOHN, O.— ST JOHN
1 1
of September 1801. He received private instruction in the classics, and also acquired proficiency in French, Italian, Spanish, Arabic and Persian. He obtained a connexion with a Plymouth newspaper, and when, in 1824, James Silk Buckingham started the Oriental Herald, St John became assistant editor. In 1827, together with D. L. Richardson, he founded the London Weekly Review, subsequently purchased by Colburn and transformed into the Court Journal. He lived for some years on the Continent and went in 1832 to Egypt and Nubia, travelling mostly on foot. The results of his journey were published under the titles Egypt and Mohammed Ali, or Travels in the Valley of the Nile (2 vols., 1834), Egypt and Nubia (1844), and I sis, an Egyptian Pilgrimage (2 vols., 1853). On his return he settled in London, and for many years wrote political " leaders " for the Daily Telegraph. In 1868 he published a Life of Sir Walter Raleigh, based on researches in the archives at Madrid and elsewhere. He died in London on the 22nd of September 1875.
Besides the works mentioned St John was also the author of Journal of a Residence in Normandy (1830); Lives of Celebrated Travellers (1830); Anatomy of Society (1831); History, Manners and Customs of the Hindus (1831); Margaret Ravenscroft, or Second Love (3 vols., 1835); The Hellenes, or Manners and Customs of Ancient Greece (1842); Sir Cosmo Digby, a novel (1844); There and Back Again in Search of Beauty (1853); The Nemesis of Power (1854); Philosophy at the Foot of the Cross (1854); The Preaching of Christ (1855) ; The Ring and the Veil, a novel (1856) ; Life of Louis Napoleon (1857); History of the Four Conquests of England (1862); and Weighed in the Balance, a novel (1864). He also edited, with notes, various English classics.
Of his four sons, all journalists and authors of some literary dis- tinction— Percy Bolingbroke (1821-1889), Bayle, Spenser and Horace Roscoe (1832-1888) — the second, BAYLE ST JOHN (1822- 1869), began contributing to the periodicals when only thirteen. When twenty he wrote a series of papers for Fraser under the title " De re vehicular!, or a Comic History of Chariots." To the same magazine he contributed a series of essays on Montaigne, and published in 1857 Montaigne the Essayist, a Biography, in 4 volumes. During a residence of two years in Egypt he wrote The Libyan Desert (1849). While in Egypt he learnt Arabic and visited the oasis of Siwa. On his return he settled for some time in Paris and published Two Years in a Levantine Family (1850) and Views in the Oasis of Siwah (1850). After a second visit to the East he published Village Life in Egypt (1852) ; Purple Tints of Paris; Characters and Manners in the New Empire (1854); The Louvre, or Biography of a Museum (1855); the Subalpine Kingdom, or Experiences and Studies in Savoy (1856); Travels of an Arab Merchant in the Soudan (1854); Maretimo, a Story of Adventure (1856) ; and Memoirs of the Duke of Saint-Simon in the Reign of Louis XIV. (4 vols., 1857).
ST JOHN, OLIVER (c. 1398-1673), English statesman and judge, was the son of Oliver St John. There were two branches of the ancient family to which he belonged, namely, the St Johns of Bletso in Bedfordshire, and the St Johns of Lydiard Tregoze in Wiltshire, both descendants of the St Johns of Staunton St John in Oxfordshire. Oliver St John was a member of the senior branch, being great-grandson of Oliver St John, who was created Baron St John of Bletso1 in 1559, and a distant cousin of the 4th baron who was created earl of Bolingbroke in 1624, and who took an active part on the parliamentary side of the Civil War, being killed at the battle of Edgehill. Oliver was educated at Queens' College, Cambridge, and was called to the bar in 1626. He appears to have got into trouble with the court in connexion with a seditious publication, and to have associated himself with the future popular leaders John Pym and Lord Saye. In 1638 he defended Hampden on his refusal to pay Ship Money, on which occasion he made a notable speech. In the same year he married, as his second wife, Elizabeth Cromwell, a cousin of Oliver Cromwell, to whom his first wife also had been distantly related. The marriage led to an intimate friendship with Cromwell. St John was member for Totnes in both the Short and the Long Parliament, where he acted in close alliance with Hampden and Pym, especially in opposition to the impost of Ship Money (q.v.). In 1641, with a view of securing his support, the king appointed St John solicitor-general. None the less he
1 This title is still held by the family lineally descended from the 1st baron, said by J. H. Round to be the only peerage family descended in the male line from an ancestor living in the time of Domesday Book.
took an active part in promoting the impeachment of Strafford and in preparing the bills brought forward by the popular party in the Commons, and was dismissed from office in 1643. On the outbreak of the Civil War, he became recognized as one of the parliamentary leaders. In the quarrel between the parliament and the army in 1647 he sided with the latter, and throughout this period he enjoyed Cromwell's entire confidence.
In 1648 St John was appointed chief'justice of the common pleas; and from this time he devoted himself mainly to his judicial duties. He refused to act as one of the commissioners for the trial of Charles. He had no hand in Pride's Purge, nor in the constitution of the Commonwealth. In 1651 he went to the Hague as one of the envoys to negotiate a union between England and Holland, a mission in which he entirely failed; but in the same year he successfully conducted a similar negotia- tion with Scotland. After the Restoration he published an account of his past conduct (The Case of Oliver St John, 1660), and this apologia enabled him to escape any more severe vengeance than exclusion from public office. He retired to his country house in Northamptonshire till 1662, when he went to live abroad. He died on the 3ist of December 1673.
By his first wife St John had two sons and two daughters. His daughter Johanna married Sir Walter St John of Lydiard Tregoze and was the grandmother of Viscount Bolingbroke. By his second wife he had two children, and after her death he married, in 1645, Elizabeth, daughter of Daniel Oxenbridge.
See the above-mentioned Case of Oliver St John (London, 1660), and St John's Speech to the Lords, Jan. Jth, 1640, concerning Ship- money (London, 1640). See also Mark Noble, Memoirs of the Pro- tectoral House of Cromwell, vol. ii. (2 vols., London, 1787) ; Anthony a Wood, Fasti Oxoniensis, edited by P. Bliss (A vols., London, 1813); Edward Foss, The Judges of England, vol. vi. (9 vols., London, 1848) ; S. R. Gardiner, History of the Great Civil War (3 vols., London, 1886- 1891), and History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate (3 vols., London, 1894-1901); Lord Clarendon, History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England (7 vols., Oxford, 1839) ; Thurloe State Papers (7 vols., London, 1742); Edmund Ludlow, Memoirs, edited by C. H. Firth (2 vols., Oxford, 1894); Thomas Carlyle, Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches; C. H. Firth's art. in Diet, of Nat. Biog., vol. 1. (London, 1897). (R. J. M.)
ST JOHN, the capital of St John county, New Brunswick, Canada, in 45° 14' N., and 66° 3' W., 481 m. from Montreal by the Canadian Pacific railway. Pop. (1901) 40,711. It is situated at the mouth of the St John river on a rocky peninsula. With it are incorporated the neighbouring towns of Carleton and (since 1889) Portland. The river, which is spanned by two bridges, enters the harbour through a rocky gorge, which is passable by ships for forty-five minutes during each ebb and flow of the tide. The harbour level at high tide (see FUNDY, BAY or) is 6 to 12 ft. higher than that of the river, but at low tide about as much below it, hence the phenomenon of a fall outwards and inwards at every tide. St John is an important station of the Intercolonial, Canadian Pacific, and New Brunswick Southern railways, and shares with Halifax the honour of being the chief winter port of the Dominion, the harbour being deep, sheltered and free from ice. It is the distributing centre for a large district, rich in agricultural produce and lumber, and has larger exports than Halifax, though less imports. It is also the centre of fisheries which employ nearly 1000 men, and has important industries, such as saw, grist, cotton and woollen mills, carriage, box and furniture factories, boiler and engine shops. The beauty of the scenery makes it a pleasant residential city.
St John was visited in 1604 by the Sieur de Mpnts (i56o-c. 1630) and his lieutenant Champlain, but it was not until 1635 that Charles de la Tour (d. 1666) established a trading post, called Fort St Jean (see Parkman, The Old Regime in Canada), which existed under French rule until 1758, when it passed into the hands of Britain. In 1783 a body of United Empire Loyalists landed at St John and established a city, called Parr Town until 1785, when it was in- corporated with Conway (Carleton), under royal charter, as the city of St John. It soon became and has remained the largest town in the province, but for military reasons was not chosen as the capital (see FREDERICTON). Its growth has been checked by several destructive fires, especially that of Tune 1877, when half of it was swept away, but it has since been rebuilt in great part of more solid materials. (W. L. G.)
12
ST JOHN— ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM
ST JOHN, an island in the Danish West Indies. It lies 4 m. E. of St Thomas, is 10 m. long and 2| m. wide; area 21 sq. m. It is a mass of rugged mountains, the highest of which is Camel Mountain (1270 ft.)- Although one of the best watered and most fertile of the Virgin Group, it has little commerce. It is a free port, and possesses in Coral Bay the best harbour of refuge in the Antilles. The village of Cruxbay lies on the northern coast. Pop. (1901) 925.
ST JOHN, a river of New Brunswick, Canada, rising in two branches, in the state of Maine, U.S.A., and in the province of Quebec. The American branch, known as the Walloostook, flows N.E. to the New Brunswick frontier, where it turns S.E. and for 80 m. forms the international boundary. A little above Grand Falls the St John enters Canada and flows through New Brunswick into the Bay of Fundy at St John. Its total length is about 450 m. It is navigable for large steamers as far as Fredericton (86 m.), and in spring and early summer for smaller vessels to Grand Falls (220 m.), where a series of falls and rapids form a descent of 70 or 80 ft. Above the falls it is navigable for 65 m. It drains an area of 26,003 sq. m., of which half is in New Brunswick, and receives numerous tributaries, of which the chief are the Aroostook, Allagash, Madawaska (draining Lake Temiscouata in Quebec), Tobique and Nashwaak.
ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM, KNIGHTS OF THE ORDER OF THE HOSPITAL OF (Ordo fralrum fiospitalariorum Hierosoly- mitanorum, Ordo miliiiae Sancti Johannis Baptislae hospitalis Hierosolymitanf), known also later as the KNIGHTS OF RHODES and the SOVEREIGN ORDER OF THE KNIGHTS OF MALTA. The history of this order divides itself naturally into four periods: (i) From its foundation in Jerusalem during the First Crusade to its expulsion from the Holy Land after the fall of the Latin kingdom in 1291; (2) from 1309-1310, when the order was established in Rhodes, to its expulsion from the island in 1522; (3) from 1529 to 1798, during which its headquarters were in Malta; (4) its development, as reconstituted after its virtual destruction in 1798, to the present day.
Early Developments. — Medieval legend set back the beginnings to the days of the Maccabees, with King Antiochus as the founder and Zacharias, father of the Baptist, as one of the first masters; later historians of the order maintained that it was established as a military order contemporaneously with the Latin conquest of Jerusalem, and that it had no connexion with any earlier foundation (so P. A. Paoli, De origine). This view would now seem to be disproved, and it is clear that the order was connected with an earlier Hospitale Hierosolymitanum.1 Such a hospital had existed in the Holy City, with rare interrup- tions, ever since it had become a centre of Christian pilgrimage. About 1023 certain merchants of Amalfi had purchased the site of the Latin hospice established by Charlemagne, destroyed in 1010 with the other Christian establishments by order of the fanatical caliph Hakim Biamrillah,2 and had there founded a hospital for pilgrims, served by Benedictines and later dedicated to St John the Baptist.' When, in 1087, the crusaders surrounded the Holy City, the head of this hospital was a certain Gerard or
'Cf. the bull of Pope Celestine II. to Raymond du Puy, in the matter of the Teutonic order, which describes the Hospital as " Hospitalem rlomum sancte civitatis Jerusalem, que a longis retro temporibus Christ! pauperum usibus dedicata, tarn christianorum quam etiam Sarracenorum tempore . . . . " (Le Roulx, Cartulaire, i. No. 154).
* This solution of the much debated question of the connexion of the Hospital with the Benedictine foundation of Sancta Maria Latina is worked out in much detail by M. Delaville Le Roulx in his Les Hospitaliers en Terre Sainte, chap. i.
* William of Tyre says that they erected in that place an altar to St John Eleemon, patriarch of Alexandria, renowned for his charities. This mistake led to the widespread belief that this saint, and not St John the Baptist, was the original patron of the order. A passage in the bull addressed by Pope Paschal to Gerard (Cartulaire, No. 30) would seem to leave the dedication in doubt: " Xenodochium, quod . . . juxta beat! Johannis Baptistae ecclesiam instituisti." The patronage of St John may thus have merely been the result of this juxtaposition, as the Templars took their name from the site of the mother-house.
Gerald,4 who earned their gratitude by assisting them in some way during the siege.6 After the capture of the city he used his popularity to enlarge and reconstitute the hospital. If, as M. Le Roulx surmises, he had previously been affiliated to the Benedictines, he now left them and adopted for his order the Augustinian rule. Donations and privileges were showered upon the new establishment. Godfrey de Bouillon led the way by granting to it in Jerusalem itself the casal Hessilia (Es Silsileh) and two bakehouses.6 Kings, nobles and prelates followed suit, not in the Holy Land only, but in Provence, France, Spain, Portugal, England and Italy: in Portugal a whole province was in 1114 made over to Gerard and his brethren (Cartid. i. No. 34). In 1113 Pope Paschal II. took the order and its possessions under his immediate protection (bull of Feb. isth to Gerard, Carlul. i. No. 30), his act being confirmed in 1119 by Calixtus II. and subsequently by other popes. Gerard was indeed, as Pope Paschal called .him, the "institutor" of the order, if not its founder. 'It retained, however, during his lifetime its purely eleemosynary character. The armed defence of pilgrims may have been part of its functions, but its organization as an aggres- sive military force was the outcome of special circumstances — the renewed activity of the Saracens — and was the work of Raymond du Puy, who succeeded as grand master on the death of Gerard (3rd of September 1120).'
Not that Raymond can be proved to have given to his order anything of its later aristocratic constitution. There is no mention in his Rule8 of the division into knights, chaplains and sergeants; indeed, there is no mention of any military duties whatever. It merely lays down certain rules of conduct and discipline for the brethren. They are to be bound by the threefold vow of chastity, poverty and obedience. They are to claim nothing for themselves save bread, water and raiment; and this latter is to be of poor quality, " since our Lord's poor, whose servants we say we are, go naked and sordid, and it is a disgrace for the servant to be proud when his master is humble." Finally, the brethren are to wear crosses on the breast of their capes and mantles, " ut Deusperipsum vexillum et fidem et pperationem et obedientiam nos custodial." ' Yet that Raymond laid down military regulations for the brethren is certain. Their underlying principle is revealed by a bull of Pope Alexander III. addressed (1178-1180) to the grand master Roger des Moulins, in which he bids him, " according to the custom of Ray- mond," abstain from bearing arms save when the standard of the Cross is displayed either for the defence of the kingdom or in an attack on a " pagan " city.10
The statesmanlike qualities of Raymond du Puy rendered his long mastership epoch-making for the order. When it was decided to fortify Ibelin (Beit-Jibrin) as an outpost against attacks from the side of Ascalon, it was to the Hospitallers that the building and defence of the new castle were assigned; and from 1137 onwards they took a regular part in the wars of the Cross. It was owing to Raymond's diplomatic skill, too, that the order was enabled to profit by the bequest made to it by Alphonso I. of Aragon, who had died childless, of a third of his kingdom. To have claimed the literal fulfilment of this bequest would have been to risk losing it all, and Raymond acted wisely in transferring the bequest, with certain important reservations, to Raymond Berenger IV., count of Barcelona and regent of
4 In spite of his fame, nothing is known of his origin. The sur- name " Tune " or " Tonque " often given to him is, as Le Roulx points out, merely the result of a copyist's error for " Gerardus tune . . ."
• According to the legend, he joined the defenders on _the walls and, instead of hurling stones, hurled bread at the Christians, who were short of supplies. Haled before the Mussulman governor, his accusers were confounded when the incriminating loaves they produced were discovered to be turned into stones.
• " Fours." So the charter of Baldwin I. (Carlul. No. 20; cf. No. 225). In his Hospitaliers Le Roulx has "tours," »'.«. two towers, probably a misprint.
7 The existence of a certain Roger as grand master between Gerard and Raymond, maintained by some historians, is finally disproved by Raymond's own testimony: " Rcginmundus, per gratiam Dei post obitum domini Giraldi factus servus pauperum Christ! " (Cariul. i. No. 46).
8 The date of this can only be approximately assigned, in so far as it was confirmed by Pope Eugenius III., who died in 1 153.
* For text see Cartulaire, i. No. 70. 10 Cartul. i. No. 527.
ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM
Aragon (i6th of September luo).1 It was probably also during his sojourn in the West for the above purpose that Raymond secured from Pope Celestine II. the bull dated December 7th, 1143, subordinating to his jurisdiction the Teutonic hospice, founded in 1128 by a German pilgrim and his wife in honour of the Blessed Virgin, which was the nucleus of the Teutonic Order (q.v.). This order was to remain subordinate to the Hospitallers actually for some fifty years, and nominally for some thirty years longer.2 Raymond took part in the Second Crusade and was present at the council of the leaders held at Acre, in 1148, which resulted in the ill-fated expedition against Damascus. The failure before Damascus was repaired five years later by the capture of Ascalon (ipth of August 1153), in which Raymond du Puy and his knights had a conspicuous share.
Meanwhile, in addition to its ever-growing wealth, the order had received from successive popes privileges which rendered it, like the companion order of the Temple, increasingly independent of and obnoxious to the secular clergy. In 1135 Innocent II. had confirmed to Raymond the privileges accorded by Paschal II., Calixtus II. and Honorious II., and in addition forbade the diocesan bishops to interdict the churches of the Hospitallers, whom he also authorized, in case of a general interdict, to cele- brate mass for themselves alone.3 In 1137 he gave them the privilege of Christian burial during such interdicts and the right to open interdicted churches once a year in order to say mass and collect money.4 These bulls were confirmed by Eugenius III. in 1 1 S35 and Anastasius IV. in 1154, the latter adding the per- mission for the order to have its own priest, independent of the diocesan bishops.6 In vain the patriarch of Jerusalem, attended by other bishops, journeyed to Rome in 1155 to complain to Adrian IV. of the Hospitallers' abuse of their privileges and to beg him to withdraw his renewal of his predecessor's bull.7
Far different was the effect produced by Raymond du Puy's triumphant progress through southern Europe from the spring of 1157 onward. From the popes, the emperor Frederick I., kings and nobles, he received fresh gifts, or the confirmation of old ones. After the 25th of October 1158, when his presence is attested at Verona, this master builder of the order disappears from history; he died some time between this date and 1160, when the name of another grand master appears.
During the thirty years of his rule the Hospital, which Gerard had instituted to meet a local need, had become universal. In the East its growth was beyond calculation: kings, prelates and laity had overwhelmed it with wealth. In the West, all Europe combined to enrich it; from Ireland to Bohemia and Hungary, from Italy and Provence to Scandinavia, men vied with each other to attract it and establish it in their midst. It was clear that for this vast institution an elaborate organization was needed, and this need was probably the occasion of Raymond's presence in Europe. The priory of St Gilles already existed as the nucleus of the later system; the development of this system took place after Raymond's death.
Constitution and Organization. — The rule of the Hospital, as formulated by Raymond du Puy, was based on that of the Augus- tinian Canons (q.v.). Its further developments, of which only the salient characteristics can be. mentioned here, were closely analogous to those of the Templars (q.v.), whose statutes regulating the life of the brethren, the terms of admission to the order, the maintenance of discipline, and the scale of punishments, culminating in ex- pulsion (pert de la maison), nre,mutatis mutandis, closely paralleled by those of the Hospitallers. These, too, were early (probably in Raymond's time) divided into three classes: knights (fratres milites), chaplains (fralres capellani), and Serjeants (fratres servientes armigeri), with affiliated brethren (confratres) and " donats " (donali, i.e. regular subscribers, as it were, to the order in return for its privileges and the ultimate right to enter the ranks of its knights). Similar, too, was the aristocratic rule which confined admission to the first
1 Cartul. i. No. 136. The arrangement was confirmed by the pope in 1158 (Le Roulx, Hospitaliers, p. 59).
1 The foundation of the Teutonic Order as a separate organization was solemnly proclaimed in the palace of the Templars at Tyre on the 5th of March 1198. Its rule was confirmed by Pope Innocent III. on Feb. I5th, 1198 (Cartul. i. No. 1072).
» Cartul. i. No. 113. 4 Ib. i. No. 122.
6 Ib. i. No. 217. • Ib. i. No. 226.
7 This renewal was dated igth of December 1154 (Ib. i. No. 229).
13
class to sons born in lawful wedlock of knights* or members of knightly families, a rule which applied also to the donats.9 For the serieant men-at-arms it sufficed that they should not be serfs. Below these a host of servientes did the menial work of the houses of the order, or worked as artisans or as labourers on the farms.
All the higher offices in the order were filled by the knights, except the ecclesiastical — which fell to the chaplains — and those of master of the squires and lurcopolier (commander of the auxiliary light cavalry), which were reserved for the serjeants-at-arms. Each knight was allowed three horses, each serjeant two. The fratres capellani ranked with the knights as eligible for certain temporal posts; at their head was the "conventual prior" (clericorum magister et ecclesie custos, prior clericorum Hospitalis).
In two important respects the Knights of St John differed from the Templars. The latter were a purely military organization ; the Hospitallers, on the other hand, were at the outset preponderatingly a nursing brotherhood, and, though this character was subordinated during their later period of military importance, it never disappeared. It continued to be a rule of the order that in its establishments it was for the sick to give orders, for the brethren to obey. The chapters were largely occupied with the building, furnishing, and improvement of hospitals, to which were attached learned physicians and surgeons, who had the privilege of messing with the knights. The revenues of particular properties were charged with providing luxuries (e.g. white bread) for the patients, and the various provinces of the order with the duty of forwarding blankets, clothes, wine and food for their use. The Hospitallers, moreover, encouraged the affiliation of women to their order, which the monastic and purely military rule of the Templars sternly forbade. So early as the First Crusade a Roman lady named Alix or Agnes had founded at Jerusalem a hospice for women in connexion with the order of St John. Until 1187, when they fled to Europe, the sisters had devoted themselves to prayer and sick-nursing. In Europe, however, they developed into a purely contemplative order.10
The habit of the order, both in peace and war, was originally a black cappa clausa (i.e. the long monastic bell-like cloak with a slit on each side for the arms) with a white, eight-pointed " Maltese " cross on the breast. As this was highly inconvenient for fighting, Innocent IV. in 1248 authorized the brethren to wear in locis sus- pectis a large super-tunic with a cross on the breast (Cartul. ii. No. 2479), and in 1259 Alexander IV. fixed the habit as, in peace time, a black mantle, and in war a red surcoat with a white cross (Cartul. ii. No. 2928).
The unit of the organization of the order was the commandery (preceptory), a small group of knights and Serjeants living in com- munity under the rule of a commander, or preceptor," charged with the supervision of several contiguous properties. The commanderies were grouped into priories, each under the rule of a prior (styled unofficially " grand prior," magnus prior), and these again into provinces corresponding to certain countries, under the authority of grand commanders. These largest groups crystallized in the I4th century as national divisions under the name of " langues " (languages)." At the head of the whole organization was the grand master. The grand master was elected, from the ranks of the knights of justice, by the same process as the grand master of the Templars (q.v.). Alone of the bailifts (bailivi), as the officials of the order were generically termed, he held office for life. His authority
8 The knights were ultimately distinguished as " Knights of Justice " (chevaliers de justice) and " Knights of Grace " (chevaliers de grdce). The former were those who satisfied the conditions as to birth, and were therefore knights " justly "; the latter were those who were admitted " of grace " for superlative merits.
• An exception was made in favour of the natural sons of counts and greater personages (Statute 7 of 1270; Cartul. ii. 3396).
10 Their premier house in Europe was at Sigena in Aragon, which they still occupy. It was granted to them by Sancia of Navarre, queen of Aragon, in 1184, the order being definitively established there in 1188. Their rule, which is that of Augustinian Canonesses, and dates from October 1188, is printed by Le Roulx, Cartulaire, i. No. 859. There is no word about nursing in it. In England the most important house was Buckland. The chief Danish house survives in the Lutheran convent of St John the Baptist at Schleswig, a Stift for noble ladies, whose superior has the title of prioress. On solemn occasions a realistic wax head of St John the Baptist on a charger is still produced.
11 Commander (comandeor, commandeur), with its Latin translation preceptor, came into use as the title of these officials somewhat late. In earlier documents they are styled ospitalarius, bajulus (bailiff), magister (master).
12 Omitting the Anglo-Bavarian langue, created in 1782, the langues (in the 15th century) were eight in number. They were (i) Provence (grand priories of St Gilles and Toulouse), (2) Auvergne (grand priory of Auvergne), (3) France (grand priories of France, Aquitaine, Champagne), (4) Italy (grand priories of Lombardy, Rome, Venice, Pisa, Capua, Barletta, Messina), (5) Aragon (castellany of Amposta, grand priories of Catalonia and Navarre), (6) England (grand priories of England — including Scotland — and Ireland), (7) Germany (grand priories of Germany or Heitersheim, Bohemia, Hungary, Dacia — i.e. Scandinavia — and the Bailiwick (Ballei) ol
ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM
was very great, but not absolute. The supreme legislative and controlling power was vested in the general chapter of the knights, at the periodical meetings of which the great officers of the order had to give an account of their stewardship, and which alone had the right to pass statutes binding on the order. The executive power of the grand master, like that of the great dignitaries immedi- ately subordinate to him, was in the nature of a delegation from the chapter. He was assisted in its exercise by four councils: (l) the " convent " or ordinary chapter, a committee of the general chapter,1 for administrative business; (2) a secret council, for criminal cases and affairs of state; (3) a full council, to hear appeals from the two former;2 and (4) the " venerable chamber of the treasury " for financial matters. To the' general chapter at headquarters corre- sponded the chapters of the priories and the commanderies, which controlled the action of the priors and commanders.
Immediately subordinate to the grand master were the seven great dignitaries of the order, known as the conventual bailiffs: the grand preceptor,3 marshal, draper (Fr. drapier) or grand con- servator, hospitaller, treasurer, admiral, turcopolier.4 The grand preceptor, elected by the chapter at the same time as the grand master and subject to his approval, was the lieutenant of the Tatter in his absence, empowered to seal for him and, in the event of his capture by the enemy, to act as vice-master. The functions of the marshal, draper, treasurer and turcopolier were practically identical with those of the officials of the same titles in the order of Knights Templars. That of hospitaller, on the other hand, was naturally a charge of exceptional importance in the order of St John ; he had a seal of his own, and was responsible for everything concerning the hospitals of the order, the dispensing of hospitality, and of alms. The admiral, as the name implies, was at sea what the marshal was on land. The office first appears in 1299 when the knights, after their expulsion from the Holy Land, had begun to organize their new sea-power in Cyprus. As to the equipage and suites of the grand master and the great dignitaries, these were practically on the same scale and of the same nature as those described in the article TEM- PLARS for the sister order. The grand master had the right himself to nominate his companions and the members of his household (seneschal, squires, secretaries, chaplains, &c.), which, as Le Roulx points out, was such as to enable him to figure as the equal of the Icings and princes with whom he consorted.
The grand-mastership of Gilbert d'Assailly was signalized by the participation of the Hospitallers in the abortive expeditions of Amalric of Jerusalem into Egypt in 1162, 1168 and 1169. On the loth of August 1164 also they shared in the disastrous defeat inflicted by Nur-ed-din at Harran on the count of Tripoli. The important position occupied by them in the councils of the kingdom is shown by the fact that the grand preceptor Guy de Mauny was one of the ambassadors sent in 1 169 to ask aid of the princes of the West. Another important development was the bestowal on the order by Bohemund III., prince of Antioch, in 1168, and King Amalric, as regent of Tripoli, in 1170, of con- siderable territories on the north-eastern frontier, to be held with almost sovereign power as a march against the Saracens (Cartu- lairc, i. Nos. 391, 411). The failure of the expedition to Egypt, however, brought considerable odium on Gilbert d'Assailly, who
Brandenburg), (8) Castile (grand priories of Castile and Leon, and Portugal). Of the grand priories the most ancient and by far the most important was that of St Gilles, founded early in the I2th century, the authority of which extended originally over the whole of what is now France and a great part of Spain. In the i6th century its seat was transferred to Aries. Out of this developed the tongues of Auvergne, France, Aragon and Castile, with their sub- sidiary priories. The date of the creation of the various grand commanderies differs greatly: that of Italy was established in the I3th century, the langue of Germany in 1422, that of Castile was split off from Aragon in 1462. The castellany of Amposta (founded 1 157) ranked as a priory. The bailiwick of Brandenburg, which had long been practically independent of the grand prior of Germany, obtained the right to elect its own bailiff (Herrenmeister) in 1382, subject to the approval of the grand prior. In the Holy Land there were no priors; the commanderies were directly under the grand master, and the commanders (who retained the style of bailli, bailivus) ranked with the grand priors elsewhere.
1 This seems to have consisted in practice of the great dignitaries of the order. See Le Roulx, Hospitaliers, p. 314.
1 A peculiarity of the order of St John was the esgart des freres (esgart, Lat. sguardium — court) which could be demanded by any knight who thought himself wronged by a decision of his superiors, even of the grand master.
a To be carefully distinguished from the regional grand preceptors or grand commanders, and also from the grand commander d'outremer, who represented the grand master in the West generally.
4 To these the grand bailiff (German, langue) and grand chancellor (Castile) were added later.
resigned the grand-mastership, probably in the autumn of ii7o.6 Under the short rule of the grand master Jobert (d. 1177) the question of a renewed attack on Egypt was mooted; but the confusion reigning in the Latin kingdom and, not least, the scandalous quarrels between the Templars and Hospitallers, rendered all aggressive action impossible. In 1179 the growing power of the two military orders received its first set back when, at the instance of the bishops, the Lateran Council forbade them to receive gifts of churches and tithes at the hands of laymen without the consent of the bishops, ordered them to restore all " recent"6 gifts of this nature, and passed a number of decrees in restraint of the abuse of their privileges.
A more potent discipline was to befall them, however, at the hands of Saladin, sultan of Egypt, who in 1186 began his sys- tematic conquest of the kingdom. It was the Hospitallers who, with the other religious orders, alone offered an organized resistance to his victorious advance. On the ist of May 1187 occurred the defeat of Tiberias, in which the grand master Gilbert des Moulins fell riddled with arrows, and this was followed on the 4th of July by the still more disastrous battle of Hittin. The flower of the Christian chivalry was slain or captured; the Hospitallers and Templars who fell into his hands Saladin massacred in cold blood. On the 2nd of October Jerusalem fell. Ten brethren of the Hospital were allowed to remain for a year to look after the sick; the rest took refuge at Tyre. In these straits Armengaud d'Asp was elected grand master (1188) and the headquarters of the order were established at Margat (Markab), near the coast some distance northwards of Tripoli. In the interior the knights still held some scattered fortresses; but their great stronghold of Krak7 was reduced by famine in September 1188 and Beauvoir in the following January.
The news of these disasters once more roused the crusading spirit in Europe; the offensive against Saladin was resumed, the Christians concentrating their forces against Acre in the autumn of 1189. In the campaigns that followed, of which Richard I. of England was the most conspicuous hero, and which ended in the recovery of Acre and the sea-coast generally for the Latin kingdom, the Hospitallers, under their grand master Gamier de Naplouse8 (Neapoli), played a prominent part. The grand-mastership of Geoffroy de Donjon, who suc- ceeded Gamier in 1192 and ruled the order till 1202,' was signalized, not by feats of arms, since the Holy Land enjoyed a precarious peace, but by a steady restoration and development of the property and privileges of the order, by renewed quarrels with the Templars, and in 1198 by the establishment — in face of the protests of the Hospitallers — of the Teutonic knights as a separate order. Under the grand-mastership of the pious Alphonso of Portugal, and of Geoffrey le Rat, who was elected on Alphonso's resignation in 1206, the knights took a vigorous part in the quarrel as to the succession in Antioch; under that of Garin de Montaigu (elected 1 207) they shared in the expedition to Egypt (1218-1221), of which he had been a vigorous advocate (see CRUSADES: The Fifth Crusade). In 1222, at the instance of the emperor Frederick II., the grand master accompanied the king of Jerusalem and others to Europe to discuss the preparation of a new crusade, visiting Rome, proceeding thence to Paris and London, and returning to the Holy Land in 1225. The expedition failed of its object so far as the organization of
* See Le Roulx, Hospitallers, p. 76 sqq. The resignation led to bitter divisions in the order. It was urged that the resignation was invalid without the consent of the general chapter and the pope; and a temporary schism was the result. Gilbert was drowned in 1183 crossing from Dieppe to England, whither he had gone at the invitation of Henry II.
* The words " tempore moderno " were interpreted by Pope Alexander III. in a bull of the ist of June 1179 as within ten years of the opening of the council (Cartul. i. No. 566).
7 The stupendous ruins of Krak-des-Chevaliers (at Kerak, S.E. of the Dead Sea) attest the wealth and power of the knights (for a restoration see CASTLE, fig. 5). The castle had been given to the Hospitallers by Guillanme du Crac in 1142. In 1193 it was again in their hands, and was subsequently greatly enlarged and strengthened. It was finally captured by the Egyptians under Hibars in 1271.
8 Garnicr had been prior of England and later of France. •So Le Roulx. p. 119.
ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM
a general crusade was concerned; but the Hospital received everywhere enormous accessions of property.1 Garin de Montaigu died in 1228, after consolidating by his statesmanlike attitude the position and power of his order, on the eve of Frederick II. 's crusade. In this crusade, conducted in spite of a papal excommunication, the Hospitallers took no part, being rewarded with the approval of Pope Gregory IX., who, in August 1229, issued a bull to the patriarch of Jerusalem ordering him to maintain the jurisdiction of the Hospital over the Teutonic knights, who had dared to assist the German emperor.2 In 1233, under the grand master Guerin, the Hospitallers took a leading part in the successful attack on the principality of Hamah. The motive of this, however — which was no more than the refusal of the emir to pay them the tribute due — seems to point to an increasing secularization of their spirit. In 1236 Pope Gregory IX. thought it necessary to threaten both them and the Templars with excommunication, to prevent their forming an alliance with the Assassins,3 and in 1238 issued a bull in which he inveighed against the scandalous lives and relaxed discipline of the Hospitallers.4
Events were soon to expose the order to fresh tests. Under the grand-mastership of Pierre de Vieille Bride6 occurred the brief " crusade " of Richard of Cornwall (nth of October 1240 to 3rd of May 1241). The truce concluded by Richard with the sultan of Egypt was accepted by the Hospitallers, rejected by the Templars, and after his departure something like a war broke out between the two bodies. In the midst of the strife of parties, in which Richard of Cornwall had recognized the fatal weakness of the Christian cause to lie, came the news of the invasion of the Chorasmians. On the 23rd of August the Tatar horde took and sacked Jerusalem. On the 1 7th of October, in alliance with the Egyptians under Bibars, it overwhelmed the Christian host at Gaza. Of the Hospitallers only sixteen escaped; 325 of the knights were slain; and among the prisoners was the grand master, Guillaume de Chateauneuf.6 Amid the general ruin that followed this defeat, the Hospitallers held out in the fortress of Ascalon, until forced to capitulate on the 15th of October 1247. Under the vice-master, the grand pre- ceptor Jean de Ronay, they took part in 1249 in the Egyptian expedition of St Louis of France, only to share in the crushing defeat of Mansurah (nth of February 1250). Of the knights present all were slain, except five who were taken prisoners, the vice-master and one other.7 At the instance of St Louis, after the conclusion of peace, 25 Hospitallers, together with the grand master Guillaume de Chateauneuf, were released.8
On the withdrawal of St Louis from the Holy Land (April 1254), a war of aggression and reprisals broke out between Christians and Mussulmans; and no sooner was this ended by a precarious truce than the Christians fell to quarrelling among themselves. In the war between the Genoese and Venetians and their respective partisans, the Hospitallers and Templars fought on opposite sides. In spite of so great a scandal and of the hopeless case of the Christian cause, the posses- sions of the order were largely increased during Guillaume de Chateauneuf's mastership, both in the Holy Land and in Europe.
Under the grand-mastership of Hugues de Revel, elected probably in 1255, the menace of a new Tatar invasion led to serious efforts to secure harmony in the kingdom. In 1258 the Templars, Hospitallers, and Teutonic knights decided to
1 Detailed by Le Roulx, Hospitallers, pp. 149-156.
1 Cartul. ii. No. 1944. The Teutonic knights refused to obey. In January 1240 Gregory called on them to explain their insub- ordination (No. 2247) and in March 1241 again ordered them to submit (No. 2270).
3 Cartul. ii. No. 2149. < Cartul. ii. No. 2186.
6 Not Villebride. The name is a corruption of Vieille Brioude (Le Roulx, Hasp. p. 183).
6 It has been generally supposed, on the authority of the chronica majora of Matthew of Paris (iv. 307-31 1), that the grand-master was killed at Gaza.
7 See the contemporary letter, Cartulaire, ii. No. 2521.
8 Cartul. ii. Nos. 2540-2541.
15
submit their disputes in Syria, Cyprus and Armenia to arbitration, a decision which bore fruit in 1260 in the settlement of their differences in Tripoli and Margat. The satisfactory arrangement was possibly affected by the result of a combined attack made in 1259 on the Hospitallers by the Templars and the brethren of St Lazarus and St Thomas, which had resulted in the practical extermination of the aggressors, possibly also by the crushing defeat of the Templars and the Syrian barons by the Turcomans at Tiberias in 1260. However achieved, the concord was badly needed; for Bibars, having in 1260 driven back the Tatars and established himself in the sultanate of Egypt, began the series of campaigns which ended in the destruction of the Latin kingdom. In 1268 Bibars conquered Antioch, and the Christian power was confined to Acre, Chateau Pelerin, Tyre, Sidon, and the castles of Margat, Krak and Belda (Baldeh), in which the Hospitallers still held out. The respite afforded by the second crusade of St Louis was ended by his death at Tunis in 1270. On the 3Oth of March 1271 the great fortress of Krak, the key to the county of Tripoli, surrendered after a short siege. The crusade of Prince Edward of England did little to avert the ultimate fate of the kingdom, and with it that of the Hospitallers in the Holy Land. This was merely delayed by the preoccupa- tions of Bibars elsewhere, and by his death in 1277. In 1280 the Mongols overran northern Syria; and the Hospitallers distinguished themselves by two victories against enormous odds, one over the Turcomans and one over the emir of Krak (February 1281). The situation, however, was desperate, and the grand master Nicolas Lorgne, who had succeeded Hugues de Revel in 1277, wrote despairing letters of appeal to Edward I. of England. On the 2$th of May 1285, Margat surrendered to the sultan Kalaun (Mansur Saifaldin). Not even the strong character and high courage of Jean de Villiers, who succeeded Nicolas Lorgne as grand master in 1285, could do more than stave off the ultimate disaster. The Hospitallers assisted in the vain defence of Tripoli, which fell on the 26th of April 1289. On the i8th of May 1291 the Mussulmans stormed Acre, the last hope of the Christians in the Holy Land. Jean de Villiers, wounded, was carried on board a ship, and sailed to Limisso in Cyprus, which became the headquarters of the order. For the remaining two years of his life Jean de Villiers was occupied in attempting the reorganization of the shattered order. The demoralization in the East was, however, too profound to admit a ready cure. The knights, represented by the grand dignitaries, addressed a petition to Pope Boniface VIII. in 1295 asking for the appointment of a permanent council of seven difinitores to control the grand master, who had become more and more autocratic. The pope did not consent; but in a severe letter to the new grand master, Eudes de Pin, he sternly reproved him for the irregularities of which he had been guilty.9 In 1 296 Eudes was succeeded by Guillaume de Villaret, grand prior of St Gilles, who for three years after his election remained in Europe, regulating the affairs of the order. In 1300, in response to the urgent remonstrances of the knights, he appeared in Cyprus. In 1299 an unnatural alliance of the Christians and Mongols gave a momentary prospect of regaining the Holy Land; in 1300 the Hospitallers took part in the raid of King Henry II. (de Lusignan) of Cyprus in Egypt, and gained some temporary successes on the coast of Syria. Of more advantage for the prestige of the order, however, were the immense additions of property and privileges which Guillaume de Villaret had secured in Europe from the pope and many kings and princes,10 and the reform of the rule and drastic reorganization of the order promulgated in a series of statutes between 1300 and 1304, the year of Guillaume's death.11 Of these changes the most significant was the definition of the powers and status of the admiral, a new great dignitary created in 1299.
The grand-mastership of Foulques de Villaret, Guillaume's
9 Cartulaire, iii. Nos. 4267, 4293; cf. the letter of the chapter- general to Guillaume de Villaret, iii. No. 4310.
10 Le Roulx, Hospitaliers, p. 259 sqq.
11 These statutes are printed in the Cartulaire, iii. Nos. 4515, iv. Nos. 4549, 4574, 4612.
i6
ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM
nephew and successor,1 was destined to be eventful for the order. On the sth of June 1305 Bertrand de Got became pope as Clement V. The new pope consulted the grand master of the Templars and Hospitallers as to the organization of a new crusade, and at the same time raised the question of the fusion of the military orders, a plan which had already been suggested by St Louis, dis- cussed at the council of Lyons in 1 274, and approved by the pope's patron Philip IV. of France. The proposal broke down on the opposition of Jacques de Molay, grand master of the Temple; but the desired result was obtained by other and more question- able means, In October 1307 Philip IV. caused all the Templars in France, including the grand master, to be arrested on charges of heresy and gross immorality; Pope Clement V., a creature of the French king, reluctantly endorsed this action, and at his instance the other sovereigns of Europe followed the example of Philip. The famous long-drawn-out trial of the Templars followed , ending at the council of Vienne in 1314, when Pope Clement decreed the dissolution of the order of the Temple and at the same time assigned the bulk of its property to the Hospital.2 (See TEMPLARS, KNIGHTS.)
Meanwhile an event had occurred which marks an epoch in the history of the order of the Hospital. In 1306 Foulques de Villaret, anxious to find a centre where the order would be untrammelled by obligations to another power as in Cyprus, came to an agreement with a Genoese pirate named Vignolo de' Vignoli for a concerted attack on Rhodes and other islands belonging to the Greek emperor. The exact date of their com- pleted conquest of the island is uncertain;3 nor is it clear that the grand master took a personal part in it. By command of the pope he had left Cyprus for Europe at the end of 1306 or the beginning of 1307, and he did not return to the East till late in 1309. He returned, however, not to Cyprus but to Rhodes, and it is with 1310, therefore, when its headquarters were established in the latter island, that the second period of the history of the order of the Hospital opens.4
The Knights in Rhodes. — The history of the order for the next fifty years is very obscure. Certain changes, however, took place which profoundly modified its character. The most important of these was its definitive division into " langues." The begin- nings of this had been made long before; but the system was only legalized by the general chapter at Montpellier in 1330. Hitherto the order had been a cosmopolitan society, in which the French element had tended to predominate; henceforth it became a federation of national societies united only for purposes of com- merce and war. To the headship of each " langue " was attached one of the great dignitaries of the order, which thus came to represent, not the order as a whole but the interests of a section.5 The motive of this change was probably, as Prutz suggests,*
1 M. Le Roulx dates his election between the 23rd of November 1304 and the 3rd of November 1305 (Hasp. p. 268).
2 The Templars' property in the Spanish [peninsula and Majorca was specially excepted, being subsequently assigned to the sovereigns, who transferred some of it to the native military orders. Nor did the Hospitallers receive by any means all of the rest. Philip IV. charged against the Hospital an enormous bill for expenses incurred in the trial of the Templars, including, as one item, those for torturing the knights. In France at least the Hospitallers complained that they were actually out of pocket. See Finke, PapsUum und Unter- gang des Tempelherrenordens, \. ad Jin. None the less, the great accession of territorial property necessitated the subdivision of the great regional jurisdictions, notably that of the priory of St Gilles, into new grand priories.
1 The question is discussed in detail by M. Le Roulx, Hospitaliers, pp. 278 sag. He himself dates the surrender of the castle ol Rhodes in 1308. Cf. Hans Prutz, " Anfange der Hospitaliter auf Rhodos " in Sitzungsber. derK. Bay.Akad. d. Wisscnschaften (1008), i. Abhandlung.
4 Foulques de Villaret's head seems to have been turned by his success. His early vigour and statesmanlike qualities gave place to luxury, debauchery and a tyrannical temper. He was ultimately deposed, and died at the castle of Teyran in Languedoc in 1327.
•The great dignitaries were distributed as follows: Grand commander of Provence, the grand preceptor; Auvergne, the grand marshal; France, the grand hospitaller; Italy, the grand admiral; Aragon, the grand conservator or draper; England, the turcopolier; Germany, the grand bailiff; Castile, the grand chancellor.
• " Die Anfange der Hospitaliter auf Rhodos."
fear of the designs of Philip IV. of France and his successors to which point had been given by the fate of the Templars, and the consequent desire to destroy the preponderance of the French element.7
The character and aims of the order were also profoundly affected by their newly acquired sovereignty — for the shadowy overlordship of the Eastern emperor was soon forgotten — and above all by its seat. The Teutonic order had established its sovereignty in Prussia, in wide and ill-defined spheres beyond the north-eastern marches of Germany. The Hospitallers ruled an island too narrow to monopolize their energies, but occupying a position of vast commercial and strategic importance. Close to the Anatolian mainland, commanding the outlet of the Archipelago, and lying in the direct trade route between Europe and the East, Rhodes had become the chief distributing point in the lively commerce which, in spite of papal thunders, Christian traders maintained with the Mahommedan states; and in the new capital of the order representatives to every language and religion of the Levant jostled, haggled and quarrelled.8 The Hospitallers were thus divided between their duty as sovereign, which was to watch over the interests of their subjects, and their duty as Christian warriors, which was to combat the Infidel. In view of the fact that the crusading spirit was everywhere declining, it is not surprising that their policy was henceforth directed less by religious than by political and commercial considerations. Not that they altogether neglected their duty as protectors of the Cross. Their galleys policed the narrow seas; their consuls in Egypt and Jerusalem watched over the interests of pilgrims; their hospitals were still maintained for the service of the sick and the destitute. But, side by side with this, seculariza- tion proceeded apace. In 1341 Pope Clement VI. wrote to the grand master denouncing the luxury of the order and the misuse of its funds; in 1355 Innocent VI. sent the celebrated Juan Fernandez de Heredia, castellan of Amposta and grand com- mander of Aragon, as his legate to Rhodes, armed with a bull which threatened the order with dissolution if it did not reform itself and effect a settlement in Turkey. In 1348, indeed, the Hospitallers, in alliance with Venice and Cyprus, had captured Smyrna; but the chief outcome of this had been commercial treaties with their allies. Such treaties were, in fact, a matter of life and death; for the island was not self-supporting, and even towards the Infidel the attitude of the knights was necessarily influenced by the fact that their supplies of provisions were mainly drawn from the Mussulman mainland. By the isth century their crusading spirit had grown so weak that they even attempted to negotiate a commercial treaty with the Ottoman sultan; the project broke down on the refusal of the knights to accept the sultan's suzerainty.
The earlier history of the Hospitallers bristles with obscure questions on which modern scholarship (notably the labours of Delaville Le Roulx) has thrown new light. From 1355 onward, however, the case is different; the essential facts have been established by writers who were able to draw on a mass of well-ordered materials.
Their history during the two centuries of the occupation of Rhodes, so far as its general interest for Europe is concerned, is that of a long series of naval attacks and counter-attacks; its chief outcome, for which the European states owed a debt of gratitude but ill acknowledged, the postponement for some two centuries of the appearance of the Ottomans as a first-rate naval power in the Mediterranean. The seaward advance of Osman the Turk was arrested by their victories; in 1358 they successfully defended Smyrna; in 1365 under their grand master Raymond Beranger (d. 1374), and in alliance with the king of Cyprus, they captured and burned Alexandria. The Ottoman peril, however, grew ever more imminent, and in 1395, under their grand master Philibert de Naillac, the Hospitallers
7 Philip IV. strenuously opposed the change for this reason. Prutz, Die geistlichen Ritterorden, pp 358 sqq. Compare the division of the general councils of Basel and Constance into nations."
8 See the regulations made, soon after the capture of the island, in the Capitula Rodi, a fragment of a code, published by Ewald in Neues Archiv iv. pp. 265-269
ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM
shared in the disastrous defeat of Nicopolis. The invasion followed of Timur the Tatar, invited to his aid by the Eastern emperor. Sultan Bayezid, the victor of Nicopolis, was over- thrown; but Timur turned against the Christians and in 1402 captured Smyrna, putting the Hospitallers who defended it to the sword. It was after this disaster that the knights built, on a narrow promontory jutting from the mainland opposite the island of Kos, the fortress of St Peter the Liberator. The castle, which still stands, its name corrupted into Budrun (from Bedros, Peter), was long a place of refuge for Christians flying from slavery.1 Some years later the position of the order as a Mediter- ranean sea-power was strengthened by commercial treaties with Venice, Pisa, Genoa, and even with Egypt (1423). The zenith of its power was reached a few years later, when, under the grand master Jean Bonpar de Lastic, it twice defeated an Egyptian attack by sea (1440 and 1444). A new and more imminent peril, however, arose with the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, for Mahommed II. had announced his intention of making Rhodes his next objective. The attack was delayed for twenty-seven years by the sultan's wars in south-eastern Europe; and meanwhile, in 1476, Pierre d'Aubusson (q.v.), the second great hero of the order, had been elected grand master. Under his inspiration, when in June 1480 the Turks, led by three renegades, attacked the island, the knights made so gallant a resistance that, in July, after repeated and decisive repulses, the Turks retreated. In 1503 Pierre d'Aubusson was succeeded by Aymar d'Amboise, who directed a long series of naval battles. In 1521 the famous Philippe de Villiers de ITsle d'Adam was elected grand master, just as the dreaded sultan Suleiman the Magnificent directed his attack on Rhodes. In 1522 he besieged the island, reinforcements failed, the European powers sent no assistance, and in 1523 the knights capitulated, and withdrew with all the honours of war to Candia (Crete). The emperor Charles V., when the news was brought to him, exclaimed, " Nothing in the world has been so well lost as Rhodes! " But he refused to assist the grand master in his plans for its recovery, and instead, five years later (1530), handed over to the Hospi- tallers the island of Malta and the fortress of Tripoli in Africa.
The Knights in Malta. — The settlement of the Hospitallers in Malta was contemporaneous with the Reformation, which profoundly affected the order. The master and knights of the bailiwick of Brandenburg accepted the reformed religion, without, however, breaking off all connexion with the order (see below). In England, on the other hand, the refusal of the grand prior and knights to acknowledge the royal supremacy led to the confiscation of their estates by Henry VIII., and, though not formally suppressed, the English " langue " practically ceased to exist.2 The knights of Malta, as they came to be known, none the less continued their vigorous warfare. Under Pierre du Pont, who succeeded Villiers de 1'Isle d'Adam in 1534, they took a conspicuous part in Charles V.'s attack on Goletta and Tunis (1535). In 1550 they defeated the redoubtable corsair Dragut, but in 1551 their position in Tripoli, always precarious, became untenable and they capitulated to the Turks under Dragut, concentrating their forces in Malta. In 1557 Jean Parisot de la Vallette (1494-1548) was elected grand master, and under his vigorous rule strenuous efforts were made to put the defences of Malta into a fit state to resist the expected
1 There is a reduction of a photograph of the castle in Bedford and Holbeche's Order of the Hospital, p. 20. The building materials were largely taken from the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus.
2 The great priory church at Clerkenwell in London was almost wholly destroyed by the Protector Somerset, who used the materials for his palace in the Strand. Only the great gateway, spanning St John Street, now survives above ground of the priory buildings. It is the headquarters of the revived English " langue." Sir John Rawson, prior of Kilmainham, the headquarters of the order in Ireland, accepted the royal supremacy and was created Lord Clontarf . In 1679 the duke of Ormonde erected the present hospital on the site of the ancient priory. The preceptory of Torphichen, head- quarters of the order in Scotland, was surrendered in 1547 by the preceptor Sir James Sandilands of Calder, who was created Lord Torphichen. As " Lord of St John " he had had precedence of all the barons of Scotland, and this right — originally exercised as a spiritual peer — was retained by him and his successors.
Turkish attack. On the i8th of May 1565 the Ottoman fleet, under Dragut, appeared before the city, and one of the most famous sieges in history began.3 It was ultimately raised on the 8th of September, on the appearance of a large relieving force despatched by the Spanish viceroy of Sicily, after Dragut and 25,000 of his followers had fallen. The memory of La Vallette, the hero of the siege, who died in 1568, is preserved in the city of Valletta, which was built on the site of the struggle.
In 1571 the knights shared in the victory of Lepanto; but this crowning success was followed during the I7th century by a long period of depression, due to internal dissensions and cul- minating during the Thirty Years' War, the position of the order being seriously affected by the terms of the peace of Westphalia (1648). The order was also troubled by quarrels with the popes, who claimed to nominate its officials (a claim renounced by Innocent XII. in 1697), and by rivalry with the Mediterranean powers, especially Venice. In Malta itself there were four rival claimants to independent jurisdiction: the grand master, the bishop of Malta, the grand inquisitor, whose office was instituted in 1572, and the Society of Jesus, introduced by Bishop Gargallo in 1592. The order, indeed, saw much fighting: e.g. the frequent expeditions undertaken during the grand-mastership of Alof de Vignacourt (1601-1622); the defence of Candia — which fell after a twenty years' siege in 1669— under Nicholas Cottoner, grand master from 1665 to 1680; and, during the grand mastership of Gregorio Caraffa (1680-1690), a campaign (1683) with John Sobieski, king of Poland, against the Turks in Hungary, and the attack in alliance with Venice on the Morea in 1687, which involved the Hospitallers in the defeat at Negro- pont in 1689. The decline of the order was hastened by the practice of electing aged grand masters to ensure frequent vacancies; such were Luiz Mendez de Vasconcellos (1622-1623) and Antonio da Paula (1623-1636) and Giovanni Paolo Lascaris (de Castellar), in 1636, who died twenty-one years later at the age of ninety-seven. The character of the order at this date became more exclusively aristocratic, and its wealth, partly acquired by commerce, partly derived from the contributions of the commanderies scattered throughout Europe, was enormous. The wonderful fortifications, planned by French architects and improved by every grand master in turn, the gorgeous churches, chapels and auberges, the great library founded in 1650, were the outward and visible sign of the growth of a corresponding luxury in the private life of the order. Neverthe- less, under Raymond Perellos de Roccaful (1697-1720) and Antonio Manoel de Vilhena (1722-1736), the knights restored their prestige in the Mediterranean by victories over the Turks. In 1741 Emmanuele Pinto de Fonseca, a man of strong character, became grand master. He expelled the Jesuits, resisted papal encroachments on his authority and, refusing to summon the general chapter, ruled as a despot.
Emanuel, prince de Rohan, who was elected grand master in succession to Francesco Jimenes de Texada in 1775, made serious efforts to revive the old spirit of the order. Under him, for the first time since 1603, a general chapter was convoked; the orders of St Anthony and St Lazarus were incorporated, and the statutes were revised and codified (1782). In 1782 also Rohan, with the approval of George III. established the new Anglo-Bavarian " langue." The last great expedition of the Maltese galleys was worthy of the noblest traditions of the order; they were sent to carry supplies for the sufferers from the great earthquake in Sicily. They had long ceased to be effec- tive fighting ships, and survived mainly as gorgeous state barges in which the knights sailed on ceremonial pleasure trips.
The French Revolution was fatal to the order. Rohan made no secret of his sympathy with the losing cause in France, and Malta became a refuge-place for the emigres. In 1792 the vast possessions of the order in France were confiscated, and six years later the Directory resolved on the forcible seizure of Malta
1 In Protestant England public prayers were offered for the success of the knights. Yet a few years later Queen Elizabeth was seeking^ the alliance of the sultan against Spain, on the ground of their common religion as against " the idolaters "!
i8
ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM
itself. Rohan had died in 1797, and his feeble successor, Baron Ferdinand von Hompesch,1 though fully warned, made no preparations to resist. In the early summer of 1798, after a siege of only a few days, he surrendered the island, with its impregnable fortifications, to Bonaparte, and retired ignomini- ously to Trieste, carrying with him the precious relics of the order — the hand of St John the Baptist presented by the sultan Bayezid, the miraculous image of Our Lady of Philermo, and a fragment of the true cross.
With this the history of the order of St John practically ends. Efforts were, however, made to preserve it. Many of the knights had taken refuge at the court of Paul I. of Russia, with whom in 1797 Hompesch had made an alliance. In October 1798 these elected the emperor Paul grand master, and in the following year Hompesch was induced to resign in his favour. The half- mad tsar took his new functions very seriously, but his murder in 1801 ruined any hope of recovering Malta with Russian assistance. A chapter of the order now granted the right of nomination to the pope, who appointed Giovanni di Tommasi grand master. From his death in 1805 until 1879, when Leo XIII. restored the title of grand master in favour of Fra Giovanni Ceschi a Santa Croce, the heads of the order received only the title of lieutenant master. In 1814 the French knights summoned a chapter general and elected a permanent commission for the government of the order, which was recognized by the Italian and Spanish knights, by the pope and by King Louis XVIII. In the Italian states much of the property of the order was restored at the instance of Austria, and in 1841 the emperor Ferdinand founded the grand priory of Lombardo-Venetia.
Present Constitution oj the Order. — The " Sovereign Order of Malta " is now divided into the Italian and German langues, both under the Sacred Council (Sagro consiglio) at Rome. The Italian langue embraces the grand priories of Rome, Lombardy and Venice, and Sicily; the German langue consists of (l) the grand priory of Bohemia, (2) the association of the honorary knights (Ehrenritler) in Silesia, (3) the association of Ehrenritler in Westphalia and the Rhine country, (4) the association of English knights (not to be confused with the English order), (5) the knights received in gremio religionis, i.e. those not attached to any of the preceding divisions. At the head of the order is the grand master. Each priory has a certain number of bailiffs (grand commanders, commendatori) , commanders, professed knights (i.e. those who have taken the vows), knights of justice (novices), honorary knights, knights of grace, donats and chaplains.
Candidates for knighthood have to prove sixteen quarterings of nobility and, if under age, must be sons of a landowner of the pro- vince and of a mother born within its limits. If an Austrian subject, the postulant must obtain the emperor's leave to join the order; the election is by the chapter, and subject to confirmation by the pope. Knights of justice take a yearly oath to fulfil the duties laid on them by the order. After ten years they may take the full oath as professed knights. At any time before doing so, however, they are free to retire from the order and may receive the croix de devotion as honorary knights, their sole obligation being an annual subscription to the order. The croix de devotion is also bestowed on ladies of sufficiently impeccable descent. The grand master also has the right, motu proprio, to bestow the cross on distinguished people not of noble birth, who are known as knights of grace. The grand cross* of the order is sometimes given, honoris causa, to sovereigns and others, who then rank as honorary bailiffs. This is a gold, white enamelled " Maltese " cross, surmounted by a crown, which is worn suspended round the neck by a black ribbon. Bailiffs, professed knights and chaplains wear in addition a white linen cross sewn on to the left breast. The grand priory of Bohemia has made the nursing of the sick its speciality, and especially the organization of military hospitals. The hospice between Bethlehem and Jeru- salem is under the protection of the Austrian emperor.
Protestant Orders. — In addition to the Sovereign Order of the Knights of Malta, there exist two Orders of St John of Jerusalem which derive their origin from the same source: the Prussian Johanniterorden and the English Order of St John of Jerusalem. Of these the Prussian order has the most interesting history. At the Reformation the master and knights of the bailiwick of Branden- burg adopted the new religion. They continued, however, like other Ritterstifter, to enjoy their corporate rights; they even continued to acknowledge the jurisdiction of the grand preceptor of the German langue, in so far as the confirmation of official appointments was concerned, and to send their contributions to the common fund of
1 He was the only German in the list of grand masters. 1 So called because the dignitaries wore a larger cross than the generality of the knights.
the order. On the 3Oth of October 1810, under stress of the miseries of the Napoleonic occupation of Prussia, the order was secularized and its estates confiscated; in 1812 King Frederick William III. founded the chivalrous order of St John, to which the expropriated knights were admitted as honorary knights. In 1853 Frederick William IV. reversed this action, abolished the new chivalrous order and reconstituted the bailiwick of Brandenburg, on the ostensible ground that its maintenance had been guaranteed by the treaty of Westphalia (1648). The master (Herrenmeister) is elected by the chapter. All members of the order must be of noble birth and belong to the Evangelical Church. The cross worn is of white enamelled gold with four black eagles between the arms; a white linen cross is also sewn on the left breast of the red tunic which forms part of the uniform. The order has founded, and supports, many hospitals, including a hospice at Jerusalem (see Herrlich, Die Battei Brandenburg, 4th ed., Berlin, 1904).
As already mentioned, the English langue, though deprived of its lands, was never formally suppressed. In 1826-1827 the comn.ission instituted by the French knights in 1814, which was ain.ing at taking advantage of the Greek War of Independence to reconquer Rhodes or to secure some other island in the Levant, suggested the restoration of the English langue, obviously with the idea of securing the help of Great Britain for their project. Certain en inent English- men, e.g. Sir Sydney Smith, had already been affiliated to the order by the grand master Baron von Hompesch; the comrr.ission now placed itself in communication with the Rev. Sir William Peat, chaplain to King George IV., and other English gentlemen of position. The negotiations resulted in articles of convention re- viving the English langue. In 1834 Sir William Peat, elected prior of the English langue, qualified himself by taking the oath de fidtli administratione in the court of King's Bench, under the charter (never repealed) of Philip and Mary re-establishing the order.3 For fifty years this was all the official recognition obtained by this curious and characteristic sham-Gothic restoration of the Ron, antic period. The " English langue," however, though somewhat absurd, did good service in organizing hospital work, notably in the creation of the St John's Ambulance Association, and this work was recog- nized in high quarters, the princess of Wales (afterwards Queen Alexandra) becoming a lady of justice in 1876 and the duke of Albany joining the order in 1883. In 1888 Queen Victoria granted a charter formally incorporating the order, the headquarters of which had been established in the ancient gate-way of the priory at Clerkenwell. In 1889 the prince of Wales (King Edward VII.) was installed as grand prior.
The objects and constitution of the order are practically the same as those of its Prussian equivalent. The sovereign is its supreme head and patron, the heir to the throne for the time being its grand prior. It is essentially aristocratic, though — for obvious reasons — proof of sixteen quarterings of nobility is not exacted as a condition of membership. The cross is the gold, white-enamelled Maltese cross, differenced by two lions and two unicorns placed between the arms. The order also gives medals to persons of all ranks " for service in the cause of humanity." Among other good works, it supports an ophthalmic hospital at Jerusalem. Unlike the Prussian order, the members need not be Protestants, though they must profess Christianity.4
AUTHORITIES. — From the izth century onwards the knights exercised peculiar care in the preservation of their records, and the vast archives of the order are still preserved, all but intact, at Malta. These include not only those of the central establishment but also a large number of those of the separate commanderies. They in- clude papal bulls, the records of the general chapter, the statutes of the grand masters, title deeds, charters, and from 1629 onwards the special transactions of the Conseil d'etat. These materials were exploited by several writers in the I7th and l8th centuries. The first was Giacomo Bpsio, the 3rd edition of whose Istoria delta . . . illustrissima militia di S. Giov. Gierosolimitano was published in 3 vols. at Rome in 1676. This was followed by S. Pauli's Codice diplomatico del sacro militare ordine Geros. (2 vols., Lucca, 1733- 1 737) ar>d P. A. Paoli's Dell' origine ed istituto del sacro militar ordine, Sfc. (Rome, 1781). These are still useful sources as containing references to, and extracts from, documents since lost. In 1883 J. Delaville Le Roulx published Les Archives del' Ordrede Saint-Jean, an analysis of the records preserved at Malta. This was followed in 1904 by his monumental Cartulaire general des Hospitaliers de Saint-Jean de Jerusalem (l 100-1310), 4 vols. folio. This gives (i) all documents anterior to 1120, (2) all those emanating from the great dignitaries of the order, (3) all those emanating from popes, em- perors, kings and great feudatories, (4) those which fix the date of the foundation of particular commanderies, (5) those regulating the relations of the Hospitallers with the lay and ecclesiastical authorities and with the other military orders, (6) the rules, statutes and customs of the order. Hitherto unpublished documents (from the archives of Malta and elsewhere) are published in full ; those already published, and the place where they may be found, being indicated in proper sequence. Based on the Cartulaire is Le Roulx's Les
1 See Bedford and Holbeche, Appendix D.
4 The medieval vows are, of course, not taken.
ST JOHNS— SAINT JOSEPH
Hospitallers en Terre Sainte et en Chypre (Paris, 1904), an invaluable work in which many hitherto obscure problems have been solved. It contains a full list of published authorities. Of English works may be mentioned John Taaffe's History of the Order of Malta (1852); J. M. Kemble's Historical introduction to The Knights Hospitallers in England (Camden Soc., London, 1857); W. Porter, Hist, of the Knights of Malta (2 vols. 1858, new ed. 1883); Bedford and Holbeche, The Order of the Hospital of St John of Jerusalem (1902), for the modern order. (W. A. P.)
ST JOHNS, the capital of Newfoundland, situated on the east coast of the island, in the peninsula of Avalon, in 47° 33' 54" N., and 52° 40' 1 8" W. It is the most easterly city of America, only 170x3 m. from Queenstown in Ireland, and 2030 from Liverpool. It stands on rising ground on the north side of a land-locked harbour, which opens suddenly in the lofty iron-bound coast. The entrance, known as The Narrows, guarded by Signal Hill (520 ft.) and South Side Hill (620 ft.), is about 1400 ft. wide, narrowing to 600 ft. between Pancake and Chain Rocks. At the termination of the Narrows the harbour trends suddenly to the west, thus completely shutting out the ocean swell. Vessels of the largest tonnage can enter at all periods of the tide. There is good wharf accommodation and a well-equipped dry dock. St Johns practically monopolizes the commerce of the island (see NEWFOUNDLAND), being the centre of the cod, seal and whale fisheries. The chief industries are connected with the fitting out of the fishing vessels, or with the disposal and manufacture of their catch. Steamship lines run to Liverpool, New York, Halifax (N.S.) and Saint Pierre. Nearly all the commerce of the island is sea-borne, and well-equipped steamers connect St Johns with the numerous bays and outports. It is the eastern terminus of the government railway across the island to Port-aux-Basques, whence there is steamer connexion with the mainland at Sydney.
The finest buildings in the city are the Anglican and Roman Catholic cathedrals. Education is controlled by the various religious bodies; many of the young men complete their studies in Canada or Great Britain. St Johns is not an incorporated town. A municipal council was abolished after having largely increased the debt of the city, and it is now governed by com- missioners appointed by the governor in council.
St Johns was first settled by Devonshire fishermen early in the i6th century. It was twice sacked by the French, and captured by them in the Seven Years' War (1762), but recaptured in the same year, since when it has remained in British possession. Both in the War of American Independence and in that of 1812 it was the headquarters of the British fleet, and at one time the western end of the harbour was filled up with American prizes. The old city, built entirely of wood, was twice destroyed by fire (1816-1817 and 1846). Half of it was again swept away in 1892, but new and more substantial buildings have been erected.
The population, chiefly of the Roman Catholic faith and of Irish descent, increases slowly. In 1901 the electoral district of St Johns contained 39,094 inhabitants, of whom 30,486 were within the limits of the city.
ST JOHNS, a town and port of entry of Quebec, Canada, and capital of St Johns county, 27 m. S.E. of Montreal by rail, on the river Richelieu and at the head of the Chambly canal. Pop. (1901) 4030. A large export trade in lumber, grain and farm produce is carried on, and its mills and factories produce flour, silk, pottery, hats, &c. Three railways, the Grand Trunk, Canadian Pacific and Central Vermont, enter St Johns. On the opposite bank of the river is the flourishing town of St Jean d'Iberville (usually known simply as Iberville), connected with St Johns by several bridges.
SAINT JOHNSBURY, a township and the county-seat of Caledonia county, Vermont, U.S.A., on the Passumpsic river, about 34 m. E.N.E. of Montpelier. Pop. (1890) 6567; (1900) 7010; (1910) 8098; of the village of the same name (1900) 5666 (1309 foreign-born); (1910) 6693. Area of the township, about 47 sq. m. Saint Johnsbury is served by the Boston & Maine and the Saint Johnsbury & Lake Champlain railways. The farms of the township are devoted largely to dairying. In the village are a Y.M.C.A. building (1885); the Saint Johnsbury Academy (1842); the Saint Johnsbury Athenaeum (1871), with a library (about 18,000 volumes in 1909) and an art gallery;
the Fairbanks Museum of Natural Science (1891), founded by Colonel Franklin Fairbanks; St Johnsbury Hospital (1895); Brightlook Hospital (1899, private); the large scales manu- factory of the E. & T. Fairbanks Company (see FAIRBANKS, ERASTUS), and also manufactories of agricultural implements, steam hammers, granite work, furniture and carriages. There are two systems of water-works, one being owned by the village. The township of Saint Johnsbury was granted to Dr Jonathan Arnold (1741—1793) and associates in 1786; in the same year a settlement was established and the place was named in honour of Jean Hector Saint John de Cr^vecoeur (1731-1813), who wrote Letters of an American Farmer (1782), a glowing description of America, which brought thither many immigrants, and who intro- duced potato planting into France. The township government was organized in 1790, and the village was incorporated in 1853.
ST JOHN'S WORT, in botany, the general name for species of Hypericum, especially H . perforatum, small shrubby plants with slender sterns, sessile opposite leaves which are often dotted with pellucid glands, and showy yellow flowers. H. Androsaenium is Tutsan (Fr. tout saine), so called from its healing properties. H. calycinum (Rose of Sharon), a creeping plant with large almost solitary flowers 3 to 4 in. across, is a south-east European plant which has become naturalized in Britain in various places in hedges and thickets.
SAINT JOSEPH, a city and the county-seat of Berrien county, Michigan, U.S.A., on Lake Michigan at the mouth of the Saint Joseph river, near the S.W. corner of the state. Pop. (1890) 3733J (1900) 5155, of whom 1183 were foreign-born; (1910 U.S. census) 5936. It is served by the Michigan Central and the Pere Marquette railways, by electric interurban railway to South Bend, Indiana, and by a steamboat line to Chicago. Benton Harbor, about i m. S.W., with which St Joseph is connected by electric line, is a terminus of the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railway. The U.S. government has deepened the harbour channel